Cogon Grass Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Loaded with Uncaria gambir Extract and Photosensitizer for Photothermal Induced Anti-MRSA Activity: Formula Optimization and In Silico Exploration
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Keywords:
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Antimicrobial Resistance, Cogon Grass Silica, Mesoporous Silica, Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapy, Uncaria gambir Extract
Abstract
In recent years antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has grown to become a massive concern for the global community due to their lack of successful prevention and low recovery rates. One of methods with high efficiency in reducing AMR is photodynamic and photothermal therapy (PDPT), due to their independency from chemical mechanism of antimicrobial efficacy. Mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN) is an excellent carrier for potential alternative for AMR including photosensitizers and natural based active ingredients. Herein, we explored the use of various sources as silica precursors as well as optimization based on method of fabrication and coating agent to stabilize and load the active ingredients. We additionally incorporated Uncaria gambir extract and phycocyanin to increase MSN antimicrobial effect and photosensitizing ability. Cogon grass-based MSN (CG-MSN) has yet to be explored extensively and in this research, we compared their characteristics to a more established precursors such as tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) and sodium silicate. Based on the results obtained, cogon grass-based precursors produced the highest yield, with entrapment efficiency of Uncaria gambir and phycocyanin as high as 98%. Furthermore, CG-MSN produced one of the highest photothermal increase and adsorption rate comparable to that of TEOS. From in silico exploration Uncaria gambir contained Gambiriin and Roxburghin as two of the most active phytoconstituents that influenced its antimicrobial activity. Based on this research we were able to synthesize a new precursor of silica from natural based product, cogon grass, and incorporate it as carrier for phytocompounds in the management of AMR.
References
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Azzahra, F. D., L. N. Mulyani, T. Sabrina, and N. A. Fithri (2025). Liposome Photosensitizer with Enzyme from Black Soybean Tempeh: Formula Optimization and In Vitro Thrombolytic Activity Evaluation. Science and Technology Indonesia, 10(3); 903–915
Chen, F. and Y. Zhu (2012). Chitosan Enclosed Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles As Drug Nano-Carriers: Sensitive Response to the Narrow pH Range. Microporous andMesoporous Materials, 150; 83–89
Cieplik, F., D. Deng,W. Crielaard,W. Buchalla, E. Hellwig, A. Al-Ahmad, and T. Maisch (2018). Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy–WhatWe Know andWhatWe Don’t. Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 44(5); 571–589
Dharsono, H. D. A., M.Mujahid, E. Apriyanti, R. A. F. Adang, S. A. Putri, M. H. Satari, and D. Kurnia (2023). Tannin Derived from Uncaria gambir Roxb. As Potential Enterococcus Faecalis UDP-N-Acetylenolpyruvoyl-glucosamine Reductase (Mur Benzyme) Inhibitor: In-Silico Antibacterial Study. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology, 16(10); 4568–4574
Dorairaj, D., N. Govender, S. Zakaria, and R. Wickneswari (2022). Green Synthesis and Characterization of UKMRC-8 Rice Husk-Derived Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle for Agricultural Application. Scientific Reports, 12(1); 20162
Ebadi, A. and A. A. Rafati (2015). Preparation of Silica Mesoporous Nanoparticles Functionalized with ????-Cyclodextrin and Its Application for Methylene Blue Removal. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 209; 239–245
Fithri, N. A., A. Fadilah, A. Pratiwi, S. S. Alisyahbana, M. F. Alhafiz, N. P. Maharani, et al. (2025). Uncaria gambir Based Green Synthesis of Inorganic Nanoparticles for Photothermal Induced Thrombolytic and Antibacterial Applications. Science and Technology Indonesia, 10(1); 303–312
Han, Y., L. Zhang, andW. Yang (2024). Synthesis of Mesoporous Silica Using the Sol–Gel Approach: Adjusting Architecture and Composition for Novel Applications. Nanomaterials, 14(11); 903
Ho, C. S., C. T. Wong, T. T. Aung, R. Lakshminarayanan, J. S. Mehta, S. Rauz, A. McNally, B. Kintses, S. J. Peacock, C. de la Fuente-Nunez, et al. (2025). Antimicrobial Resistance: A Concise Update. The Lancet Microbe, 6(1); 1–14
Ikuta, K. S., L. R. Swetschinski, G. R. Aguilar, F. Sharara, T.Mestrovic, A. P. Gray, N. D.Weaver, E. E.Wool, C. Han, and A. G. Hayoon (2022). Global Mortality Associated with 33 Bacterial Pathogens in 2019: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet, 400(10369); 2221–2248
Kannan, C., M. Radhakrishnan, D. Sambathkumar, M. Dhanaraja, M. Muvendhiran, and M. Dharnisha (2024). A Review on Step into the Future: Python Prescription (PyRx) Transforms Virtual Drug Discovery with AI-Driven Tools. African Journal of Biomedical Research, 27(3S); 790–795
Krishnan, V., M. Suresh, T. Kalaivani, et al. (2022). Synthesis and Characterization of Mesoporous SiO2 Nanoparticles for Bio Medical Applications. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, volume 1219. IOP Publishing, page 012038
Liu, J., L. Zhang, H. Ma, H. Sun, S.-a. Ge, J. Liu, S. Fan, and C. Quan (2025). Quaternary Ammonium Chitosan-Functionalized Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles: A Promising Targeted Drug Delivery System for the Treatment of Intracellular MRSA Infection. Carbohydrate Polymers, 352; 123184
Mardiyanto, M., I. Sholihah, and T. G. Jaya (2020). The Chitosan-Sodium Alginate Submicro Particles Loading Herbal of Ethanolic Exract of Leaves Senna alata. L for Curing of Bacterial Infection on Skin. Science and Technology Indonesia, 5(3); 85–89
Naghavi, M., S. E. Vollset, K. S. Ikuta, L. R. Swetschinski, A. P. Gray, E. E.Wool, G. R. Aguilar, T.Mestrovic, G. Smith, and C. Han (2024). Global Burden of Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance 1990–2021: ASystematic Analysis with Forecasts to 2050. The Lancet, 404(10459); 1199–1226
Narayan, R., U. Y. Nayak, A. M. Raichur, and S. Garg (2018). Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles: A Comprehensive Review on Synthesis and Recent Advances. Pharmaceutics, 10(3); 118
Nasab, N. A., H. H. Kumleh, M. Beygzadeh, S. Teimourian, and M. Kazemzad (2018). Delivery of Curcumin by a pHResponsive Chitosan Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment. Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology, 46(1); 75–81
Overchuk, M., R. A.Weersink, B. C.Wilson, and G. Zheng (2023). Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapies: Synergy Opportunities for Nanomedicine. ACS Nano, 17(9); 7979–8003
Putz, A.-M., S. Cecilia, C. Ianăşi, Z. Dudás, K. N. Szekely, J. Plocek, P. Sfârloagă, L. Săcărescu, and L. Almasy (2015). Pore Ordering inMesoporous Matrices Induced by Different Directing Agents. Journal of PorousMaterials, 22(2); 321–331
Rahmat, N., F. Hamzah, N. Sahiron, M. Mazlan, and M. M. Zahari (2016). Sodium Silicate As Source of Silica for Synthesis of Mesoporous SBA-15. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, volume 133. IOP Publishing, page 012011
Singha, B., V. Singh, and V. Soni (2024). Alternative Therapeutics to Control Antimicrobial Resistance: A General Perspective. Frontiers in Drug Discovery, 4; 1385460
Usgodaarachchi, L., C. Thambiliyagodage, R. Wijesekera, and M. G. Bakker (2021). Synthesis of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Derived from Rice Husk and Surface-Controlled Amine Functionalization for Efficient Adsorption of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solution. Current Research in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 4; 100116
Vallet-Regí, M., F. Schüth, D. Lozano, M. Colilla, and M. Manzano (2022). Engineering Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery: Where Are We After Two Decades? Chemical Society Reviews, 51(13); 5365–5451
Varala, R., V. Kotra, A. K. Kanuri, M. R. Burra, and S. Nyamathullah (2023). Nano Drug Delivery-benefits, Limitations and Future Perspective. Nano and Medical Materials, 3(1); 244–244
Wang, Y., C. Niu, S. Fan, Y. Li, X. Li, Y. Dai, J. Shi, and X. Wang (2020). Indocyanine Green Loaded Modified Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles As an Effective Photothermal Nanoplatform. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(13); 4789
Zhang, M., C. Xu, L. Wen, M. K. Han, B. Xiao, J. Zhou, Y. Zhang, Z. Zhang, E. Viennois, and D. Merlin (2016). A Hyaluronidase-Responsive Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery System for Targeting Colon Cancer Cells. Cancer Research, 76(24); 7208–7218
Zhu, L.,W. Zhang, P. Song,W. Li, X. Chen, F. Ge, L. Gui, K. Yang, Y. Tao, and D. Guocheng (2022). Redox-Responsive Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Chemo-Photodynamic Combination Cancer Therapy. Materials Research Express, 9(4); 045401
Authors
Mardiyanto, Sabrina, T. ., Alhafizh, M. F. ., Kota, N. B. ., Ramadhona, S. I. ., Valenia, N. ., Amrullah, M. A. ., Zulda, D. R. ., Marrisca, R. N. ., Alisyahbana, S. S. ., Fadilah, A. ., Pratiwi, A. ., & Fithri, N. A. (2026). Cogon Grass Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Loaded with Uncaria gambir Extract and Photosensitizer for Photothermal Induced Anti-MRSA Activity: Formula Optimization and In Silico Exploration. Science and Technology Indonesia, 11(1), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2026.11.1.311-322
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