The Influence of Milling on the Structural and Morphological Properties of Waste-Based Active Carbon from Rubber Seeds Using High Energy Milling (HEM) Method
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Keywords:
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Rubber Seed Shell, Activated Carbon, HEM, Milling Time, Temperature
Abstract
The high-energy milling (HEM) synthesis method has produced activated carbon powder from rubber ore shell waste. The activated carbon was prepared using a chemical method with activation temperatures varying between 400, 500, and 600°C. Temperature optimization resulted in activated carbon with a maximum carbon content at 600°C. The activated carbon was then milled for various times: 0, 30, 60, and 90 minutes. The crystallinity and surface morphology of the samples were then confirmed using an X-ray diffractometer (XRD) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) characterization. Based on the XRD graph, the percentage of structural regularity, or degree of crystallinity, of the activated carbon tended to decrease from 18.17% without milling treatment to 17.52% at 30 minutes of milling, 17.45% at 60 minutes of milling, and 17.35% at 90 minutes of milling. SEM images also show a decrease in the average pore diameter from approximately 0.45 µm to 0.20 µm with a more homogeneous intraparticle morphology structure when the milling time is increased from 30 minutes to 90 minutes. This study demonstrates the potential of rubber seed shell waste for processing into activated carbon. The HEM method can significantly reduce the grain size of activated carbon and increase its surface area and reactivity, making it more effective in applications as an adsorbent and filter.
References
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Milyutin, V. A., R. Bures, M. Faberova, and F. Kromka (2023). Effect of Milling Parameters on Size, Morphology, and Structure of Fe Ga Binary Alloy Powder. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 32(9); 3839–3848
Mohan, V. L., S. M. S. Nagendra, and M. P. Maiya (2019). Photocatalytic Degradation of Gaseous Toluene Using Self Assembled Air Filter Based on Chitosan/Activated Carbon/ TiO2. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 7(6); 103455
Neme, I., G. Gonfa, and C. Masi (2022). Activated Carbon from Biomass Precursors Using Phosphoric Acid: A Review. Heliyon, 8(12); e11940
Nguyen, M. L., T. T. N. Hoang, D. T. Le, H. L. Ngo, N. T. T. Chau, and T. T. Nguyen (2023). Adsorption of Tetracycline Using the a-FeOOH-Loaded Rubber-Seed-Shell-Derived Activated Carbon. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 234(9); 591
Nisa, Z. U., L. K. Chuan, B. H. Guan, F. Ahmad, and S. Ayub (2023). A Comparative Study on the Crystalline and Surface Properties of Carbonized Mesoporous Coconut Shell Chars. Sustainability, 15(8); 6464
Nurfarhana, M. M., N. Asikin-Mijan, and S. F. M. Yusoff (2023). Porous Carbon from Natural Rubber for CO2 Adsorption. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 308; 128196
Oladipo, B. and E. Betiku (2020). Optimization and Kinetic Studies on the Conversion of Rubber Seed (Hevea brasiliensis) Oil to Methyl Esters over a Green Biowaste Catalyst. Journal of Environmental Management, 268; 110705
Patel, H., A. Mohanty, and M. Misra (2024). Sustainable Synthesis of Activated Porous Carbon from Lignin for Enhanced CO2 Capture: A Comparative Study of Physicochemical Activation Routes. Energy Advances, 3(10); 2552–2568
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Roy, D., B. Roy, and A. K. Manna (2023). Pyrolyzed Mesoporous Activated Carbon Preparation from Natural Rubber Common Effluent Biosludge: Characterization, Isotherms, Kinetics, Thermodynamics, and ANN Modeling During Phenol Adsorption. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 23; 101020
Rusma, Y. S., P. Taba, S. Fauziah, M. Zakir, F. Samawi, and A. H. Assegaf (2024). Study into the Effectiveness of Using Activated Carbon of Kluwak Shell (Pangium edule Reinw) as Adsorbent of Heavy Metals in Wastewater. Ecological Engineering & Environmental Technology, 25(9); 99–108
Sambasivam, K. M., P. Kuppan, L. S. Laila, V. Shashirekha, K. Tamilarasan, and S. Abinandan (2023). Kernel-Based Biodiesel Production from Non-Edible Oil Seeds: Techniques, Optimization, and Environmental Implications. Energies, 16(22); 7589
Sarif, M., H. Bojet, T. Khadiran, R. Jalil, P. Elham, N. A. Lissem, J. Zainudin, W. C. Ching, and R. A. Dayus (2023). The Influence of H3PO4 Concentration on the Yield, Porous Structure, and Surface Chemicals of Sarawak Wild Bamboo Activated Carbon. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 27(5); 980–992
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Shoba, B. and J. Jeyanthi (2022). Performance Analysis of Rubber Seed Shell Activated Carbon Incorporated Polymeric Membrane for the Separation of Oil-in-Water Emulsion. Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 30(3); 1055–1071
Suryanarayana, C. (2001). Mechanical Alloying and Milling. Progress in Materials Science, 46(1-2); 1–184
Swiątkowski, A., E. Kuśmierek, K. Kuśmierek, and S. Błazewicz (2024). The Influence of Thermal Treatment of Activated Carbon on Its Electrochemical, Corrosion, and Adsorption Characteristics. Molecules, 29(18); 4930
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Togibasa, O., M. Mumfaijah, Y. K. Allo, K. Dahlan, and Y. O. Ansanay (2021). The Effect of Chemical Activating Agent on the Properties of Activated Carbon from Sago Waste. Applied Sciences, 11(24); 11640
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Torvorapanit, P., K. Kawang, P. Chariyavilaskul, S. J. Kerr, T. Chatsuwan, and V. Nilaratanakul (2023). The In Vitro Efficacy of Activated Charcoal in Fecal Ceftriaxone Adsorption among Patients Who Received Intravenous Ceftriaxone. Antibiotics, 12(1); 127
Udo, M. D., U. Ekpo, and F. O. Ahamefule (2018). Effects of Processing on the Nutrient Composition of Rubber Seed Meal. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 17(3); 297–301
Vinod, A., H. Pulikkalparambil, P. Jagadeesh, and S. M. Rangappa (2023). Recent Advancements in Lignocellulose Biomass-Based Carbon Fiber: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications. Heliyon, 9(3); e13614
Wardani, G. A., E. M. Qudsi, A. T. K. Pratita, K. Idacahyati, and E. Nofiyanti (2021). Utilization of Activated Charcoal from Sawdust as an Antibiotic Adsorbent of Tetracycline Hydrochloride. Science and Technology Indonesia, 6(3); 214 221
Yang, Z., R. Gleisner, D. H. Mann, J. Xu, J. Jiang, and J. Y. Zhu (2020). Lignin-Based Activated Carbon Using H3PO4 Activation. Polymers, 12(12); 2829
Yossaa, L. M. N., S. K. Ouimingaa, S. S. Sidibea, and I. W. K. Ouedraogo (2020). Synthesis of a Cleaner Potassium Hydroxide-Activated Carbon from Baobab Seeds Hulls and Investigation of Adsorption Mechanisms for Diuron. Scientific African, 9; e00476
Zeng, B., X. Zeng, L. Hu, L. Huang, Y. Huang, Y. Zhou, G. Liu, and W. Huang (2024). Activated Carbon from Camelliaoleifera Shells for Adsorption of Y(III): Experimental and DFT Studies. RSC Advances, 14(6); 4252–4263
Zhu, L., Q. Wang, H. Wang, F. Zhao, and D. Li (2022). One-Step Chemical Activation Facilitates Synthesis of Activated Carbons from Acer truncatum Seed Shells for Premium Capacitor Electrodes. Industrial Crops and Products, 187; 115458
Zuo, Q., Y. Zhang, H. Zheng, P. Zhang, H. Yang, J. Yu, T. J. Tang, Y. Zheng, and J. Mai (2019). A Facile Method to Modify Activated Carbon Fibers for Drinking Water Purification. Chemical Engineering Journal, 365; 175–182
Center for Agricultural Data and Information Systems (2020). Final December 2020 Rubber Outlook
Devi, R., V. Kumar, S. Kumar, M. Bulla, A. Jatrana, R. Rani, A. K. Mishra, and P. Singh (2023). Recent Advancement in Biomass-Derived Activated Carbon for Wastewater Treatment, Energy Storage, and Gas Purification: A Review. Journal of Materials Science, 58(27); 12119–12142
Divya, M. P., S. Krishnamoorthi, R. Ravi, V. G. Jenner, K. Baranidharan, M. Raveendran, and P. Hemalatha (2025). Preparation and Characterization of Activated Carbon from Commercially Important Bamboo Species in North Eastern India. Advances in Bamboo Science, 11; 100148
Fatima, S. S., A. Borhan, M. Ayoub, and N. A. Ghani (2023). Modeling of CO2 Adsorption on Surface-Functionalized Rubber-Seed Shell Activated Carbon: Isotherm and Kinetic Analysis. Processes, 11(10); 2833
Gao, P., X. Fan, D. Sun, G. Zeng, Q. Wang, and Q. Wang (2024). Recent Advances in Ball-Milled Materials and Their Applications for Adsorptive Removal of Aqueous Pollutants. Water, 16(12); 1639
Gohr, M. S., A. I. Abd-Elhamid, A. A. El-Shanshory, and H. M. A. Soliman (2022). Adsorption of Cationic Dyes onto Chemically Modified Activated Carbon: Kinetics and Thermodynamic Study. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 346; 118227
Hamid, M., T. I. Nasution, R. Elfinita, H. Wijoyo, and I. Isnaen (2024). Reducing Ammonia (NH3) Levels in Fish Cage Water Using Activated Carbon Adsorbent Derived from Purple Corn Cob. Science and Technology Indonesia, 9(3); 743–751
Hassan, U. F., A. A. Sallau, E. O. Ekanem, A. Jauro, and A. M. Kolo (2021). Effect of Carbonization Temperature on Properties of Char from Coconut Shell. International Journal of Advanced Chemistry, 9(1); 34–39
Heimesaat, M. M., N. Schabbel, L. Q. Langfeld, N. W. Shayya, S. Mousavi, and S. Bereswill (2024). Prophylactic Oral Application of Activated Charcoal Mitigates Acute Campylobacteriosis in Human Gut Microbiota-Associated IL–/ 10 Mice. Biomolecules, 14(2); 141
Jasim, A. M. and N. A. Ali (2023). Microstructure Investigation of Activated Carbon Prepared from Potato Peel. Journal of Applied Sciences and Nanotechnology, 3(2); 75–86
Jawad, A. H. (2018). Carbonization of Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) Seed Shell by One-Step Liquid Phase Activation with H2SO4 for Methylene Blue Adsorption. Desalination and Water Treatment, 129; 279–288
Joy, J., A. Krishnamoorthy, A. Tanna, V. Kamathe, R. Nagar, and S. Srinivasan (2022). Recent Developments on the Synthesis of Nanocomposite Materials via Ball Milling Approach for Energy Storage Applications. Applied Sciences, 12(18); 9312
Kengchuwong, M., C. Ketwong, C. Nuasri, S. Wanich, S. Trisupakitti, and J. Morris (2023). Rubber Wood Sawdust Waste Converted to Activated Carbon for Heavy Metal Removal from Wastewater. Journal of Food Health and Bioenvironmental Science, 16(1); 26–36. January–April 2023
Keppetipola, N. M., M. Dissanayake, P. Dissanayake, B. Karunarathne, M. A. Dourges, D. Talaga, L. Servant, C. Olivier, T. Toupance, S. Uchida, K. Tennakone, G. R. A. Kumara, and L. Cojocaru (2021). Graphite-Type Activated Carbon from Coconut Shell: A Natural Source for Eco-Friendly Non-Volatile Storage Devices. RSC Advances, 11(5); 2854–2865
Li, L., X. Liu, K. Huang, Y. Wang, X. Zheng, J. Wang, Y. Du, L. Jiang, and S. Zhao (2020). A Facile Strategy to Fabricate Intumescent Fire-Retardant and Smoke Suppression Protective Coatings for Natural Rubber. Polymer Testing, 90; 106689
Marcilla, A., S. García-García, M. Asensio, and J. A. Conesa (2000). Influence of Thermal Treatment Regime on the Density and Reactivity of Activated Carbons from Almond Shells. Carbon, 38(3); 429–440
McEnaney, B. (1999). Structure and Bonding in Carbon Materials. In Carbon Materials for Advanced Technologies. Elsevier, pages 1–33
Milyutin, V. A., R. Bures, M. Faberova, and F. Kromka (2023). Effect of Milling Parameters on Size, Morphology, and Structure of Fe Ga Binary Alloy Powder. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 32(9); 3839–3848
Mohan, V. L., S. M. S. Nagendra, and M. P. Maiya (2019). Photocatalytic Degradation of Gaseous Toluene Using Self Assembled Air Filter Based on Chitosan/Activated Carbon/ TiO2. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 7(6); 103455
Neme, I., G. Gonfa, and C. Masi (2022). Activated Carbon from Biomass Precursors Using Phosphoric Acid: A Review. Heliyon, 8(12); e11940
Nguyen, M. L., T. T. N. Hoang, D. T. Le, H. L. Ngo, N. T. T. Chau, and T. T. Nguyen (2023). Adsorption of Tetracycline Using the a-FeOOH-Loaded Rubber-Seed-Shell-Derived Activated Carbon. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 234(9); 591
Nisa, Z. U., L. K. Chuan, B. H. Guan, F. Ahmad, and S. Ayub (2023). A Comparative Study on the Crystalline and Surface Properties of Carbonized Mesoporous Coconut Shell Chars. Sustainability, 15(8); 6464
Nurfarhana, M. M., N. Asikin-Mijan, and S. F. M. Yusoff (2023). Porous Carbon from Natural Rubber for CO2 Adsorption. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 308; 128196
Oladipo, B. and E. Betiku (2020). Optimization and Kinetic Studies on the Conversion of Rubber Seed (Hevea brasiliensis) Oil to Methyl Esters over a Green Biowaste Catalyst. Journal of Environmental Management, 268; 110705
Patel, H., A. Mohanty, and M. Misra (2024). Sustainable Synthesis of Activated Porous Carbon from Lignin for Enhanced CO2 Capture: A Comparative Study of Physicochemical Activation Routes. Energy Advances, 3(10); 2552–2568
Phiri, M. M., M. J. Phiri, K. Formela, and S. P. Hlangothi (2021). Chemical Surface Etching Methods for Ground Tire Rubber as a Sustainable Approach for Environmentally Friendly Composites Development– A Review. Composites Part B: Engineering, 204; 108429
Prasad, V. B. S. R., G. Venkatarao, and M. Idrees (2020). Identification of Damping Characteristics of EPDM-Rubber with Applications to Sandwiched Beams and Considerations to Engine Mounts for Performance Evaluation. Materials Today: Proceedings, 24; 628–640
Roy, D., B. Roy, and A. K. Manna (2023). Pyrolyzed Mesoporous Activated Carbon Preparation from Natural Rubber Common Effluent Biosludge: Characterization, Isotherms, Kinetics, Thermodynamics, and ANN Modeling During Phenol Adsorption. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 23; 101020
Rusma, Y. S., P. Taba, S. Fauziah, M. Zakir, F. Samawi, and A. H. Assegaf (2024). Study into the Effectiveness of Using Activated Carbon of Kluwak Shell (Pangium edule Reinw) as Adsorbent of Heavy Metals in Wastewater. Ecological Engineering & Environmental Technology, 25(9); 99–108
Sambasivam, K. M., P. Kuppan, L. S. Laila, V. Shashirekha, K. Tamilarasan, and S. Abinandan (2023). Kernel-Based Biodiesel Production from Non-Edible Oil Seeds: Techniques, Optimization, and Environmental Implications. Energies, 16(22); 7589
Sarif, M., H. Bojet, T. Khadiran, R. Jalil, P. Elham, N. A. Lissem, J. Zainudin, W. C. Ching, and R. A. Dayus (2023). The Influence of H3PO4 Concentration on the Yield, Porous Structure, and Surface Chemicals of Sarawak Wild Bamboo Activated Carbon. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 27(5); 980–992
Sasmita, A., Edward, and D. Situmeang (2022). CO Adsorption Performance of Rubber Wood Activated Carbon. Materials Today: Proceedings, 63; S26–S31
Shoba, B. and J. Jeyanthi (2022). Performance Analysis of Rubber Seed Shell Activated Carbon Incorporated Polymeric Membrane for the Separation of Oil-in-Water Emulsion. Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 30(3); 1055–1071
Suryanarayana, C. (2001). Mechanical Alloying and Milling. Progress in Materials Science, 46(1-2); 1–184
Swiątkowski, A., E. Kuśmierek, K. Kuśmierek, and S. Błazewicz (2024). The Influence of Thermal Treatment of Activated Carbon on Its Electrochemical, Corrosion, and Adsorption Characteristics. Molecules, 29(18); 4930
Tarigan, J. B., R. Anggraini, R. P. Sembiring, M. Supeno, K. Tarigan, J. Ginting, J. A. Karo-karo, and E. K. Sitepu (2022). Waste Rubber Seeds as a Renewable Energy Source: Direct Biodiesel Production Using a Controlled Crushing Device. RSC Advances, 12(4); 2094–2101
Togibasa, O., M. Mumfaijah, Y. K. Allo, K. Dahlan, and Y. O. Ansanay (2021). The Effect of Chemical Activating Agent on the Properties of Activated Carbon from Sago Waste. Applied Sciences, 11(24); 11640
Tonu, N. T., S. Kundu, M. M. Islam, P. K. Dhar, T. Khandaker, M. A. A. M. Anik, S. K. Dutta, M. K. Hasan, and M. S. Hossain (2024). Fabrication of Waste Biomass-Derived KOH Activated Carbon for Enhanced CO2 Capture. New Journal of Chemistry, 48(43); 20212–20224
Torvorapanit, P., K. Kawang, P. Chariyavilaskul, S. J. Kerr, T. Chatsuwan, and V. Nilaratanakul (2023). The In Vitro Efficacy of Activated Charcoal in Fecal Ceftriaxone Adsorption among Patients Who Received Intravenous Ceftriaxone. Antibiotics, 12(1); 127
Udo, M. D., U. Ekpo, and F. O. Ahamefule (2018). Effects of Processing on the Nutrient Composition of Rubber Seed Meal. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 17(3); 297–301
Vinod, A., H. Pulikkalparambil, P. Jagadeesh, and S. M. Rangappa (2023). Recent Advancements in Lignocellulose Biomass-Based Carbon Fiber: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications. Heliyon, 9(3); e13614
Wardani, G. A., E. M. Qudsi, A. T. K. Pratita, K. Idacahyati, and E. Nofiyanti (2021). Utilization of Activated Charcoal from Sawdust as an Antibiotic Adsorbent of Tetracycline Hydrochloride. Science and Technology Indonesia, 6(3); 214 221
Yang, Z., R. Gleisner, D. H. Mann, J. Xu, J. Jiang, and J. Y. Zhu (2020). Lignin-Based Activated Carbon Using H3PO4 Activation. Polymers, 12(12); 2829
Yossaa, L. M. N., S. K. Ouimingaa, S. S. Sidibea, and I. W. K. Ouedraogo (2020). Synthesis of a Cleaner Potassium Hydroxide-Activated Carbon from Baobab Seeds Hulls and Investigation of Adsorption Mechanisms for Diuron. Scientific African, 9; e00476
Zeng, B., X. Zeng, L. Hu, L. Huang, Y. Huang, Y. Zhou, G. Liu, and W. Huang (2024). Activated Carbon from Camelliaoleifera Shells for Adsorption of Y(III): Experimental and DFT Studies. RSC Advances, 14(6); 4252–4263
Zhu, L., Q. Wang, H. Wang, F. Zhao, and D. Li (2022). One-Step Chemical Activation Facilitates Synthesis of Activated Carbons from Acer truncatum Seed Shells for Premium Capacitor Electrodes. Industrial Crops and Products, 187; 115458
Zuo, Q., Y. Zhang, H. Zheng, P. Zhang, H. Yang, J. Yu, T. J. Tang, Y. Zheng, and J. Mai (2019). A Facile Method to Modify Activated Carbon Fibers for Drinking Water Purification. Chemical Engineering Journal, 365; 175–182
Authors
Arsyad, F. S., Aprilianda, Aulia, Akmal Johan, Ihsan Alfikro, Amiruddin Supu, Ahmad, N., & Andrivo Rusydi. (2026). The Influence of Milling on the Structural and Morphological Properties of Waste-Based Active Carbon from Rubber Seeds Using High Energy Milling (HEM) Method. Science and Technology Indonesia, 11(2), 621–631. https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2026.11.2.621-631
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