Nanoparticle-Enhanced 3D-Connector Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Device (3D-µPADs) for Sensitive and Cost-Effective Detection of Albumin-Creatinine Ratio in Urine Sample
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Keywords:
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Albumin, Creatinine, Gold Nanoparticle, Paper-Based Devices, Urine
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a global health challenge affecting over 800 million people worldwide. Early detection is crucial to prevent progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD), where life-saving interventions like dialysis or transplantation are necessary. Among the markers for early kidney damage, the Albumin Creatinine Ratio (ACR) in urine is one of the most reliable. Conventional methods of ACR detection, such as LC/MS-MS and ELISA, are highly accurate but require expensive equipment and skilled personnel, limiting their accessibility, especially in resource-limited settings. To address this, we developed a 3D-connector microfluidic paperbased analytical device (3D-µPADs) enhanced with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for sensitive and low-cost ACR detection. The integration of AuNPs amplifies colorimetric signals, enhancing the visual distinction in albumin detection. Our 3D-µPADs were
fabricated using chromatographic paper Whatman No. 1 with hydrophobic barriers created by solid wax printing, followed by reagent immobilization for albumin and creatinine detection. The colorimetric and distance responses, based on reactions with Bromocresol Green (BCG) and Chrome Azurol S-Palladium (CAS-Pd2+), were analyzed using ImageJ software to quantify albumin and creatinine levels. The 3D-µPADs exhibited optimal sensitivity and accuracy, with linear detection ranges for albumin and creatinine of 30–400 mg/g. Validation with human urine samples demonstrated an accuracy of 93.04%, suggesting that 3D-µPADs offer a promising alternative for early nephropathy detection. Our findings provide a cost-effective, accessible tool for CKD screening, potentially transforming diagnostics in low-resource environments.
References
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Kusuma, S. A. F., J. A. Harmonis, R. Pratiwi, and A. N. Hasanah (2023). Gold Nanoparticle-Based Colorimetric Sensors: Properties and Application in Detection of Heavy Metals and Biological Molecules. Sensors, 23(19); 8172.
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Morbioli, G. G., T. Mazzu-Nascimento, A. M. Stockton, and E. Carrilho (2017). Technical Aspects and Challenges of Colorimetric Detection with Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices (????PADs)—A Review. Analytica Chimica Acta, 970; 1–22.
Mousavi, B., F. Tafvizi, and S. Zaker Bostanabad (2018). Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Artemisia Turcomanica Leaf Extract and the Study of Anti-Cancer Effect and Apoptosis Induction on Gastric Cancer Cell Line (AGS). Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology, 46(sup1); 499–510.
Ng, J. S. and M. Hashimoto (2020). Fabrication of Paper Microfluidic Devices Using a Toner Laser Printer. RSC Advances, 10(50); 29797–29807.
Paramasivam, G., N. Kayambu, A. M. Rabel, A. K. Sundramoorthy, and A. Sundaramurthy (2017). Anisotropic Noble Metal Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Surface Functionalization and Applications in Biosensing, Bioimaging, Drug Delivery and Theranostics. Acta Biomaterialia, 49; 45–65.
Park, J., R. Shrestha, C. Qiu, A. Kondo, S. Huang, M. Werth, M. Li, J. Barasch, and K. Suszták (2018). Single-Cell Transcriptomics of the Mouse Kidney Reveals Potential Cellular Targets of Kidney Disease. Science, 360(6390); 758–763.
Persson, F. and P. Rossing (2018). Diagnosis of Diabetic Kidney Disease: State of the Art and Future Perspective. Kidney International Supplements, 8(1); 2–7.
Petersson, S. D. and E. Philippou (2016). Mediterranean Diet, Cognitive Function, and Dementia: A Systematic Review of the Evidence. Advances in Nutrition, 7(5); 889–904.
Randviir, E. P. and C. E. Banks (2013). Analytical Methods for Quantifying Creatinine Within Biological Media. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 183; 239–252.
Sabarudin, A. (2018). Sequential Injection at Valve Mixing (SI-VM) for Determination of Albumin-Creatinine Ratio in Urine. Oriental Journal of Chemistry, 34(2); 730–734.
Sarigul, N., F. Korkmaz, and Kurultak (2019). A New Artificial Urine Protocol to Better Imitate Human Urine. Scientific Reports, 9(1); 20159.
Snee, P. T., J. Shanoski, and C. B. Harris (2005). Mechanism of Ligand Exchange Studied Using Transition Path Sampling. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 127(4); 1286–1290.
Songjaroen, T., W. Dungchai, O. Chailapakul, and W. Laiwattanapaisal (2011). Novel, Simple and Low-Cost Alternative Method for Fabrication of Paper-Based Microfluidics by Wax Dipping. Talanta, 85(5); 2587–2593.
Srivastava, A., S. K. Chopra, and P. R. Dasgupta (2009). Biochemical Analysis of Human Seminal Plasma II. Protein, Non-Protein Nitrogen, Urea, Uric Acid and Creatine*. Andrologia, 16(3); 265–268.
Sulehri, M. A. and N. M. Sheikh (2009). Chronic Renal Failure: Association of Diabetes Mellitus. The Professional Medical Journal, 16(4); 532–536.
Sununta, S., P. Rattanarat, O. Chailapakul, and N. Praphairaksit (2018). Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices for Determination of Creatinine in Urine Samples. Analytical Sciences, 34(1); 109–113.
Thompson, L. E. and M. S. Joy (2022). Endogenous Markers of Kidney Function and Renal Drug Clearance Processes of Filtration, Secretion, and Reabsorption. Current Opinion in Toxicology, 31; 100344.
Tkáčiková, S., I. Talian, and J. Sabo (2020). Optimization of Urine Sample Preparation for Shotgun Proteomics. Open Chemistry, 18(1); 850–856.
Trinh, K. T. L., W. R. Chae, and N. Y. Lee (2022). Recent Advances in the Fabrication Strategies of Paper-Based Microfluidic Devices for Rapid Detection of Bacteria and Viruses. Microchemical Journal, 180; 107548.
Vaidya, S. R. and N. R. Aeddula (2024). Chronic Kidney Disease. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing.
Wang, G., C. Yan, S. Gao, and Y. Liu (2019). Surface Chemistry of Gold Nanoparticles Determines Interactions with Bovine Serum Albumin. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 103; 109856.
Wang, S., L. Ge, X. Song, J. Yu, S. Ge, J. Huang, and F. Zeng (2012). Paper-Based Chemiluminescence ELISA: Lab-on-Paper Based on Chitosan Modified Paper Device and Wax-Screen-Printing. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 31(1); 212–218.
Yamada, K., T. G. Henares, K. Suzuki, and D. Citterio (2015). Paper-Based Inkjet-Printed Microfluidic Analytical Devices. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 54(18); 5294–5310.
Yang, F., L. Zhang, H. Wu, H. Zou, and Y. Du (2014). Clinical Analysis of Cause, Treatment and Prognosis in Acute Kidney Injury Patients. PLoS ONE, 9(2); e85214.
Yang, J., X. Wang, Y. Sun, B. Chen, F. Hu, C. Guo, and T. Yang (2022). Recent Advances in Colorimetric Sensors Based on Gold Nanoparticles for Pathogen Detection. Biosensors, 13(1); 29.
Yumang, A. N., P. B. Cruz, and C. J. G. Valenzuela (2021). Liquid Chromatography Microfluidics for Detection and Quantification of Urine Albumin Using Linear Regression Method. In 2021 11th International Conference on Biomedical Engineering and Technology. pages 158–163.
Zhang, X., X. Fan, Y. Wang, F. Lei, L. Li, J. Liu, and P. Wu (2020). Highly Stable Colorimetric Sensing by Assembly of Gold Nanoparticles with SYBR Green I: From Charge Screening to Charge Neutralization. Analytical Chemistry, 92(1); 1455–1462.
Al-Jaf, S. H. and K. M. Omer (2022). Enhancing of Detection Resolution via Designing of a Multi-Functional 3D Connector Between Sampling and Detection Zones in Distance-Based Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Device: Multi-Channel Design for Multiplex Analysis. Microchimica Acta, 189(12); 482.
Ariyanti, M., L. Lillah, E. Nasrul, and H. Husni (2018). Correlation of Urine N-Acetyl-Beta-D-Glucosaminidase Activity with Urine Albumin Creatinine Ratio in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Indonesian Journal of Clinical Pathology and Medical Laboratory, 23(3); 275–280.
Bolaños, K., M. J. Kogan, and E. Araya (2019). Capping Gold Nanoparticles with Albumin to Improve Their Biomedical Properties. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 14; 6387–6406.
Bruzewicz, D. A., M. Reches, and G. M. Whitesides (2008). Low-Cost Printing of Poly(Dimethylsiloxane) Barriers to Define Microchannels in Paper. Analytical Chemistry, 80(9); 3387–3392.
Carrilho, E., A. W. Martinez, and G. M. Whitesides (2009). Understanding Wax Printing: A Simple Micropatterning Process for Paper-Based Microfluidics. Analytical Chemistry, 81(16); 7091–7095.
Chaiyo, S., K. Kalcher, A. Apilux, O. Chailapakul, and W. Siangproh (2018). A Novel Paper-Based Colorimetry Device for the Determination of the Albumin to Creatinine Ratio. The Analyst, 143(22); 5453–5460.
Chapman, D. P., K. M. Gooding, T. J. McDonald, and A. C. Shore (2019). Stability of Urinary Albumin and Creatinine after 12 Months Storage at -20 ◦C and -80 ◦C. Practical Laboratory Medicine, 15; e00120.
Chen, Q., M. Lu, B. R. Monks, and M. J. Birnbaum (2016). Insulin Is Required to Maintain Albumin Expression by Inhibiting Forkhead Box O1 Protein. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 291(5); 2371–2378.
Chen, S.-J., C.-C. Tseng, K.-H. Huang, Y.-C. Chang, and L.-M. Fu (2022). Microfluidic Sliding Paper-Based Device for Point-of-Care Determination of Albumin-to-Creatine Ratio in Human Urine. Biosensors, 12(7); 496.
Cheng, J., J. Huang, Q. Xiang, and H. Dong (2023). Hollow Microneedle Microfluidic Paper-Based Chip for Biomolecules Rapid Sampling and Detection in Interstitial Fluid. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1255; 341101.
Dai, J., C. Chen, M. Yin, H. Li, W. Li, Z. Zhang, Q. Wang, Z. Du, X. Xu, and Y. Wang (2023). Interactions between Gold Nanoparticles with Different Morphologies and Human Serum Albumin. Frontiers in Chemistry, 11; 1273388.
De Tarso Garcia, P., T. M. Garcia Cardoso, C. D. Garcia, E. Carrilho, and W. K. Tomazelli Coltro (2014). A Handheld Stamping Process to Fabricate Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices with Chemically Modified Surface for Clinical Assays. RSC Advances, 4(71); 37637–37644.
Decreased, G. (2013). Definition and Classification of CKD. Kidney Int, 3; 19–62.
Fortova, M., E. Klapkova, B. Sopko, and R. Prusa (2018). Estimated Total Albumin in Fresh Urine Samples Based on Correlation Between the Roche Immunoturbidimetric and an In-House HPLC Method. Clinical Laboratory, 64(11+12/2018).
Fraser, S. and T. Blakeman (2016). Chronic Kidney Disease: Identification and Management in Primary Care. Pragmatic and Observational Research, 7; 21–32.
Hardiyanti, S. A., N. D. Wijaya, L. Krisdiyanti, S. F. Putri, H. Sulistyarti, A. Mulyasuryani, S. P. Sakti, A. Aulanni’am, and A. Sabarudin (2024). Detection of Albumin Using Gold Nanoparticles-Mediated Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices. In AIP Conference Proceedings, volume 3068. AIP Publishing.
Harish, V., D. Tewari, M. Gaur, A. B. Yadav, S. Swaroop, M. Bechelany, and A. Barhoum (2022). Review on Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Materials: Bioimaging, Biosensing, Drug Delivery, Tissue Engineering, Antimicrobial, and Agro-Food Applications. Nanomaterials, 12(3); 457.
Hiraoka, R., K. Kuwahara, Y.-C. Wen, T.-H. Yen, Y. Hiruta, C.-M. Cheng, and D. Citterio (2020). Paper-Based Device for Naked Eye Urinary Albumin/Creatinine Ratio Evaluation. ACS Sensors, 5(4); 1110–1118.
Khachornsakkul, K., R. Del-Rio-Ruiz, H. Creasey, G. Widmer, and S. R. Sonkusale (2023). Gold Nanomaterial-Based Microfluidic Paper Analytical Device for Simultaneous Quantification of Gram-Negative Bacteria and Nitrite Ions in Water Samples. ACS Sensors, 8(11); 4364–4373.
Kiconco, R., S. P. Rugera, and G. N. Kiwanuka (2019). Microalbuminuria and Traditional Serum Biomarkers of Nephropathy among Diabetic Patients at Mbarara Regional Referral Hospital in South Western Uganda. Journal of Diabetes Research, 2019; 1–7.
Kovesdy, C. P. (2022). Epidemiology of Chronic Kidney Disease: An Update 2022. Kidney International Supplements, 12(1); 7–11.
Kusuma, S. A. F., J. A. Harmonis, R. Pratiwi, and A. N. Hasanah (2023). Gold Nanoparticle-Based Colorimetric Sensors: Properties and Application in Detection of Heavy Metals and Biological Molecules. Sensors, 23(19); 8172.
Mohamed, A. A.-R., S. I. Khater, A. Hamed Arisha, M. M. M. Metwally, G. Mostafa-Hedeab, and E. S. El-Shetry (2021). Chitosan-Stabilized Selenium Nanoparticles Alleviate Cardio-Hepatic Damage in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Model via Regulation of Caspase, Bax/Bcl-2, and Fas/FasL-Pathway. Gene, 768; 145288.
Morbioli, G. G., T. Mazzu-Nascimento, A. M. Stockton, and E. Carrilho (2017). Technical Aspects and Challenges of Colorimetric Detection with Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices (????PADs)—A Review. Analytica Chimica Acta, 970; 1–22.
Mousavi, B., F. Tafvizi, and S. Zaker Bostanabad (2018). Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Artemisia Turcomanica Leaf Extract and the Study of Anti-Cancer Effect and Apoptosis Induction on Gastric Cancer Cell Line (AGS). Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology, 46(sup1); 499–510.
Ng, J. S. and M. Hashimoto (2020). Fabrication of Paper Microfluidic Devices Using a Toner Laser Printer. RSC Advances, 10(50); 29797–29807.
Paramasivam, G., N. Kayambu, A. M. Rabel, A. K. Sundramoorthy, and A. Sundaramurthy (2017). Anisotropic Noble Metal Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Surface Functionalization and Applications in Biosensing, Bioimaging, Drug Delivery and Theranostics. Acta Biomaterialia, 49; 45–65.
Park, J., R. Shrestha, C. Qiu, A. Kondo, S. Huang, M. Werth, M. Li, J. Barasch, and K. Suszták (2018). Single-Cell Transcriptomics of the Mouse Kidney Reveals Potential Cellular Targets of Kidney Disease. Science, 360(6390); 758–763.
Persson, F. and P. Rossing (2018). Diagnosis of Diabetic Kidney Disease: State of the Art and Future Perspective. Kidney International Supplements, 8(1); 2–7.
Petersson, S. D. and E. Philippou (2016). Mediterranean Diet, Cognitive Function, and Dementia: A Systematic Review of the Evidence. Advances in Nutrition, 7(5); 889–904.
Randviir, E. P. and C. E. Banks (2013). Analytical Methods for Quantifying Creatinine Within Biological Media. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 183; 239–252.
Sabarudin, A. (2018). Sequential Injection at Valve Mixing (SI-VM) for Determination of Albumin-Creatinine Ratio in Urine. Oriental Journal of Chemistry, 34(2); 730–734.
Sarigul, N., F. Korkmaz, and Kurultak (2019). A New Artificial Urine Protocol to Better Imitate Human Urine. Scientific Reports, 9(1); 20159.
Snee, P. T., J. Shanoski, and C. B. Harris (2005). Mechanism of Ligand Exchange Studied Using Transition Path Sampling. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 127(4); 1286–1290.
Songjaroen, T., W. Dungchai, O. Chailapakul, and W. Laiwattanapaisal (2011). Novel, Simple and Low-Cost Alternative Method for Fabrication of Paper-Based Microfluidics by Wax Dipping. Talanta, 85(5); 2587–2593.
Srivastava, A., S. K. Chopra, and P. R. Dasgupta (2009). Biochemical Analysis of Human Seminal Plasma II. Protein, Non-Protein Nitrogen, Urea, Uric Acid and Creatine*. Andrologia, 16(3); 265–268.
Sulehri, M. A. and N. M. Sheikh (2009). Chronic Renal Failure: Association of Diabetes Mellitus. The Professional Medical Journal, 16(4); 532–536.
Sununta, S., P. Rattanarat, O. Chailapakul, and N. Praphairaksit (2018). Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices for Determination of Creatinine in Urine Samples. Analytical Sciences, 34(1); 109–113.
Thompson, L. E. and M. S. Joy (2022). Endogenous Markers of Kidney Function and Renal Drug Clearance Processes of Filtration, Secretion, and Reabsorption. Current Opinion in Toxicology, 31; 100344.
Tkáčiková, S., I. Talian, and J. Sabo (2020). Optimization of Urine Sample Preparation for Shotgun Proteomics. Open Chemistry, 18(1); 850–856.
Trinh, K. T. L., W. R. Chae, and N. Y. Lee (2022). Recent Advances in the Fabrication Strategies of Paper-Based Microfluidic Devices for Rapid Detection of Bacteria and Viruses. Microchemical Journal, 180; 107548.
Vaidya, S. R. and N. R. Aeddula (2024). Chronic Kidney Disease. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing.
Wang, G., C. Yan, S. Gao, and Y. Liu (2019). Surface Chemistry of Gold Nanoparticles Determines Interactions with Bovine Serum Albumin. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 103; 109856.
Wang, S., L. Ge, X. Song, J. Yu, S. Ge, J. Huang, and F. Zeng (2012). Paper-Based Chemiluminescence ELISA: Lab-on-Paper Based on Chitosan Modified Paper Device and Wax-Screen-Printing. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 31(1); 212–218.
Yamada, K., T. G. Henares, K. Suzuki, and D. Citterio (2015). Paper-Based Inkjet-Printed Microfluidic Analytical Devices. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 54(18); 5294–5310.
Yang, F., L. Zhang, H. Wu, H. Zou, and Y. Du (2014). Clinical Analysis of Cause, Treatment and Prognosis in Acute Kidney Injury Patients. PLoS ONE, 9(2); e85214.
Yang, J., X. Wang, Y. Sun, B. Chen, F. Hu, C. Guo, and T. Yang (2022). Recent Advances in Colorimetric Sensors Based on Gold Nanoparticles for Pathogen Detection. Biosensors, 13(1); 29.
Yumang, A. N., P. B. Cruz, and C. J. G. Valenzuela (2021). Liquid Chromatography Microfluidics for Detection and Quantification of Urine Albumin Using Linear Regression Method. In 2021 11th International Conference on Biomedical Engineering and Technology. pages 158–163.
Zhang, X., X. Fan, Y. Wang, F. Lei, L. Li, J. Liu, and P. Wu (2020). Highly Stable Colorimetric Sensing by Assembly of Gold Nanoparticles with SYBR Green I: From Charge Screening to Charge Neutralization. Analytical Chemistry, 92(1); 1455–1462.
Authors
Sabarudin, A., Fiddaroini, S., Fahmi, A. L., Roja’i, A. M., Salsabila, I. E., Aulanni’am, Srihardyastutie, A., Susanti, H., & Samsu, N. (2025). Nanoparticle-Enhanced 3D-Connector Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Device (3D-µPADs) for Sensitive and Cost-Effective Detection of Albumin-Creatinine Ratio in Urine Sample. Science and Technology Indonesia, 10(2), 504–518. https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2025.10.2.504-518
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.