Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Fly Ash for a Partial Replacement of Cement in High-Quality, Environmentally Friendly Mortar as a Solution to Industrial Waste
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Keywords:
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POFA, Fly Ash , Cementitious Material , Industrial Waste
Abstract
This study explores the effects of incorporating palm oil fuel ash (POFA) and fly ash (FA) as partial cement substitutes on the mechanical properties and characteristics of high-quality mortar, specifically Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC). ECC mortar was fabricated by milling POFA waste and FA through a top-down method utilizing a ball mill. The resulting material was subjected to tests for slump flow, water absorption, compressive strength, and characterized through XRF, FTIR, SEM/EDX, and XRD analyses. FTIR analysis verified the existence of Si-O and Al-O groups within the composite made of POFA-FA ECC. XRF analysis of FA and POFA showed cementitious properties, with SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 exceeding 50% and CaO surpassing 10%. SEM and XRD results indicated minimal cavity formation, suggesting a high compressive strength in the mortar. Particle size distribution analysis revealed prevalent particles in the 1.5×10−1 to 2.0×10−1 μm range. The compressive strength test after 28 days, incorporating 15% FA and 10% POFA, yielded the highest strength at 59.30 MPa. The water absorption values ranged from 1.25% to 2.67%, indicating that POFA-FA assists in the cement hydration process and also serves as a filler. As a result, the material’s density is very high, leading to fewer voids formed, thus reducing the trapped water, which significantly affects the mortar’s strength.
References
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Aldahdooh, M., N. M. Bunnori, and M. M. Johari (2014). Influence of Palm Oil Fuel Ash on Ultimate Flexural and Uniaxial Tensile Strength of Green Ultra-high Performance Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites. Materials & Design, 54; 694–701
Alex, J., J. Dhanalakshmi, and B. Ambedkar (2016). Experimental Investigation on Rice Husk Ash As Cement Replacement on Concrete Production. Construction and Building Materials, 127; 353–362
Alsubari, B., P. Shafigh, Z. Ibrahim, and M. Z. Jumaat (2018). Heat-treated Palm Oil Fuel Ash As an Effective Supplementary Cementitious Material Originating from Agriculture Waste. Construction and Building Materials, 167; 44–54
Ayub, M., M. H. D. Othman, M. Z. M. Yusop, I. U. Khan, Z. S. Tai, and S. K. Hubadillah (2023). Optimized Single-step Synthesis of Graphene-based Carbon Nanosheets from Palm Oil Fuel Ash. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 296; 127202
Chousidis, N., E. Rakanta, I. Ioannou, and G. Batis (2015). Mechanical Properties and Durability Performance of Reinforced Concrete Containing Fly Ash. Construction and Building Materials, 101; 810–817
Chub-uppakarn, T., T. Chompoorat, T. Thepumong, W. Sae Long, A. Khamplod, and S. Chaiprapat (2023). Influence of Partial Substitution of Metakaolin by Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Alumina Waste Ash on Compressive Strength and Microstructure in Metakaolin-based Geopolymer Mortar. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 19; e02519
Danish, A., O. Karadag, T. Bilir, and T. Ozbakkaloglu (2023). Valorization of Biomass Ashes in the Production of Cementitious Composites: A Comprehensive Review of Properties and Performance. Construction and Building Materials, 405; 133244
de Azevedo, A. R., M. Amin, M. Hadzima Nyarko, I. S. Agwa, A. M. Zeyad, B. A. Tayeh, and A. Adesina (2022). Possibilities for the Application of Agro-industrial Wastes in Cementitious Materials: A Brief Review of the Brazilian Perspective. Cleaner Materials, 3; 100040
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Hamada, H. M., A. Alya’a, F. M. Yahaya, K. Muthusamy, B. A. Tayeh, and A. M. Humada (2020). Effect of High-volume Ultrafine Palm Oil Fuel Ash on the Engineering and Transport Properties of Concrete. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 12; e00318
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Huseien, G. F., M. Khamehchi, Z. Kubba, O. Benjeddou, and M. J. Mahmoodi (2023b). Freeze-thaw Cycle and Abrasion Resistance of Alkali-activated FA and PPFA-based Mortars: Role of High Volume Gbfs Incorporation. Heliyon, 9(7); e17672
Huseien, G. F., Z. Kubba, and S. K. Ghoshal (2023c). Engineering Attributes of Ternary Geopolymer Mortars Containing High Volumes of Palm Oil Fuel Ash: Impact of Elevated Temperature Exposure. Fire, 6(9); 340
Jose, S. K., S. Anagha, B. Meera, T. Antony, and R. Reenu (2023). Foamed Concrete using Red Gypsum and Palm Oil Fuel Ash: A Sustainable Building Material. E3S Web of Conferences, 405; 03023
Khankhaje, E., M. Rafieizonooz, M. R. Salim, R. Khan, J. Mirza, H. C. Siong, et al. (2018). Sustainable Clean Pervious Concrete Pavement Production Incorporating Palm Oil Fuel Ash As Cement Replacement. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172; 1476–1485
Lin, Y., U. J. Alengaram, and Z. Ibrahim (2023). Effect of Treated and Untreated Rice Husk Ash, Palm Oil Fuel Ash, and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash on the Mechanical, Durability, and Microstructure Characteristics of Blended Concrete–a Comprehensive Review. Journal of Building Engineering, 78; 107500
Liu, M. Y. J., U. J. Alengaram, M. Santhanam, M. Z. Jumaat, and K. H. Mo (2016). Microstructural Investigations of Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Fly Ash Based Binders in Lightweight Aggregate Foamed Geopolymer Concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 120; 112–122
Muthusamy, K., A. M. A. Budiea, N. W. Azhar, M. S. Jaafar, S. M. S. Mohsin, N. F. Arifin, and F. M. Yahaya (2021a). Durability Properties of Oil Palm Shell Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Containing Fly Ash As Partial Cement Replacement. Materials Today: Proceedings, 41; 56–60
Muthusamy, K., A. M. A. Budiea, S. M. S. Mohsin, N. S. M. Zam, and N. E. A. Nadzri (2021b). Properties of Fly Ash Cement Brick Containing Palm Oil Clinker As Fine Aggregate Replacement. Materials Today: Proceedings, 46; 1652–1656
Muthusamy, K., M. S. Jaafar, N. W. Azhar, N. Zamri, N. Samsuddin, A. M. A. Budiea, and M. F. M. Jaafar (2020). Properties of Oil Palm Shell Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Containing Fly Ash As Partial Cement Replacement. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, volume 849. IOP Publishing, page 012048
Muthusamy, K., J. Mirza, N. A. Zamri, M. W. Hussin, A. P. A. Majeed, A. Kusbiantoro, and A. M. A. Budiea (2019). Properties of High Strength Palm Oil Clinker Lightweight Concrete Containing Palm Oil Fuel Ash in Tropical Climate. Construction and Building Materials, 199; 163–177
Naganathan, S., A. Y. O. Mohamed, and K. N. Mustapha (2015). Performance of Bricks Made Using Fly Ash and Bottom Ash. Construction and Building Materials, 96; 576–580
Nandiyanto, A. B. D., R. Oktiani, and R. Ragadhita (2019). How to Read and Interpret FTIR Spectroscope of Organic Material. Indonesian Journal of Science and Technology, 4(1); 97–118
Nath, P. and P. K. Sarker (2014). Effect of GGBFS on Setting, Workability and Early Strength Properties of Fly Ash Geopolymer Concrete Cured in Ambient Condition. Construction and Building Materials, 66; 163–171
Nugraha, P. et al. (2007). Teknologi Beton; Dari Material, Pembuatan, Ke Beton Kinerja Tinggi. Yogyakarta: Andi (In Indonesia)
Rafieizonooz, M., J. Mirza, M. R. Salim, M. W. Hussin, and E. Khankhaje (2016). Investigation of Coal Bottom Ash and Fly Ash in Concrete As Replacement for Sand and Cement. Construction and Building Materials, 116; 15–24
Rajak, M. A. A., Z. A. Majid, and M. Ismail (2023). Hydration of Hardened Cement Paste Incorporates Nano-Palm Oil Fuel Ash at Later Age: The Microstructure Studies. matrix, 6; 7
Ranjbar, N., M. Mehrali, U. J. Alengaram, H. S. C. Metselaar, and M. Z. Jumaat (2014). Compressive Strength and Microstructural Analysis of Fly Ash/palm Oil Fuel Ash Based Geopolymer Mortar under Elevated Temperatures. Construction and Building Materials, 65; 114–121
Ryu, G. S., Y. B. Lee, K. T. Koh, and Y. S. Chung (2013). The Mechanical Properties of Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete with Alkaline Activators. Construction and Building Materials, 47; 409–418
Sabah, S. A., Z. Zainul, S. Hashim, and M. M. Johari (2020). The Influence of Palm Oil Fuel Ash on the Fresh Properties of Green Self-compacting Concrete. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, volume 849. IOP Publishing, page 012066
Satriawan, A. and A. Awaluddin (2021). The Utilization Silica from Oil Fly Ash as a Raw material for Paper Filler. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series, volume 2049. IOP Publishing, page 012062
Sherir, M. A., K. M. Hossain, and M. Lachemi (2014). Fracture Energy Characteristics of Engineered Cementitious Composites Incorporating Different Aggregates. In CSCE 2014 4th International Structural Specialty Conference
Siad, H., A. Alyousif, O. K. Keskin, S. B. Keskin, M. Lachemi, M. Sahmaran, and K. M. A. Hossain (2015). Influence of Limestone Powder on Mechanical, Physical and Self-healing Behavior of Engineered Cementitious Composites. Construction and Building Materials, 99; 1–10
Sumra, Y., S. Payam, A. C. Iftikhar, M. Rizwan, A. K. Tanveer, A. Belal, and G. Mustabshirha (2023). Chemical and Thermal Characterization of Cement Mortar Containing Ground Palm Oil Fuel Ash as a Partial Cement Replacement. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology-Mater. Sci. Ed., 38(3); 575–581
Tasnim, S., Y. Du, M. E. Rahman, R. B. Ahmadi, and S. I. Doh (2020). Effect of Using Palm Oil Fuel Ash on the Durability of Cement Paste in Ammonium Nitrate Solution. Construction and Building Materials, 257; 119597
Thomas, B. S., S. Kumar, and H. S. Arel (2017). Sustainable Concrete Containing Palm Oil Fuel Ash As a Supplementary Cementitious Material–a Review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 80; 550–561
Ting, T. Z. H., M. E. Rahman, and H. H. Lau (2020). Sustainable Lightweight Self-compacting Concrete Using Oil Palm Shell and Fly Ash. Construction and Building Materials, 264; 120590
Tosun-Felekoğlu, K., E. Gödek, M. Keskinateş, and B. Felekoğlu (2017). Utilization and Selection of Proper Fly Ash in Cost Effective Green Htpp-ecc Design. Journal of Cleaner Production, 149; 557–568
Wang, S. and V. C. Li (2007). Engineered Cementitious Composites with High-volume Fly Ash. ACI Materials Journal, 104(3); 233
Wi, K., H.-S. Lee, S. Lim, H. Song, M. W. Hussin, and M. A. Ismail (2018). Use of an Agricultural By product, Nano Sized Palm Oil Fuel Ash As a Supplementary Cementitious Material. Construction and Building Materials, 183; 139–149
Zaimi, S. A., M. N. Muhd Sidek, N. H. Hashim, H. Mohd Saman, R. Putra Jaya, and N. A. Marzuki (2023). Potential of Palm Oil Fuel Ash as a Partial Replacement of Fine Aggregates for Improved Fresh and Hardened Mortar Performance. Advances in Civil Engineering, 2023
Zawawi, M. N. A. A., K. Muthusamy, A. P. A. Majeed, R. M. Musa, and A. M. A. Budiea (2020). Mechanical Properties of Oil Palm Waste Lightweight Aggregate Concrete with Fly Ash As Fine Aggregate Replacement. Journal of Building Engineering, 27; 100924
Adesina, A. and S. Das (2020). Mechanical Performance of Engineered Cementitious Composite Incorporating Glass As Aggregates. Journal of Cleaner Production, 260; 121113
Akmal, A. M. N., K. Muthusamy, F. M. Yahaya, H. M. Hanafi, and Z. N. Azzimah (2017). Utilization of Fly Ash As Partial Sand Replacement in Oil Palm Shell Lightweight Aggregate Concrete. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, volume 271. IOP Publishing, page 012003
Aldahdooh, M., N. M. Bunnori, and M. M. Johari (2014). Influence of Palm Oil Fuel Ash on Ultimate Flexural and Uniaxial Tensile Strength of Green Ultra-high Performance Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites. Materials & Design, 54; 694–701
Alex, J., J. Dhanalakshmi, and B. Ambedkar (2016). Experimental Investigation on Rice Husk Ash As Cement Replacement on Concrete Production. Construction and Building Materials, 127; 353–362
Alsubari, B., P. Shafigh, Z. Ibrahim, and M. Z. Jumaat (2018). Heat-treated Palm Oil Fuel Ash As an Effective Supplementary Cementitious Material Originating from Agriculture Waste. Construction and Building Materials, 167; 44–54
Ayub, M., M. H. D. Othman, M. Z. M. Yusop, I. U. Khan, Z. S. Tai, and S. K. Hubadillah (2023). Optimized Single-step Synthesis of Graphene-based Carbon Nanosheets from Palm Oil Fuel Ash. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 296; 127202
Chousidis, N., E. Rakanta, I. Ioannou, and G. Batis (2015). Mechanical Properties and Durability Performance of Reinforced Concrete Containing Fly Ash. Construction and Building Materials, 101; 810–817
Chub-uppakarn, T., T. Chompoorat, T. Thepumong, W. Sae Long, A. Khamplod, and S. Chaiprapat (2023). Influence of Partial Substitution of Metakaolin by Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Alumina Waste Ash on Compressive Strength and Microstructure in Metakaolin-based Geopolymer Mortar. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 19; e02519
Danish, A., O. Karadag, T. Bilir, and T. Ozbakkaloglu (2023). Valorization of Biomass Ashes in the Production of Cementitious Composites: A Comprehensive Review of Properties and Performance. Construction and Building Materials, 405; 133244
de Azevedo, A. R., M. Amin, M. Hadzima Nyarko, I. S. Agwa, A. M. Zeyad, B. A. Tayeh, and A. Adesina (2022). Possibilities for the Application of Agro-industrial Wastes in Cementitious Materials: A Brief Review of the Brazilian Perspective. Cleaner Materials, 3; 100040
Ghazali, N., K. Muthusamy, R. Embong, I. A. Rahim, N. M. Razali, F. Yahaya, N. Ariffin, and S. W. Ahmad (2021). Effect of Fly Ash As Partial Cement Replacement on Work-ability and Compressive Strength of Palm Oil Clinker Lightweight Concrete. Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 682(1); 012038
Golewski, G. L. (2023). Assessing of Water Absorption on Concrete Composites Containing Fly Ash up to 30% in Regards to Structures Completely Immersed in Water. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 19; e02337
Hamada, H. M., A. Alya’a, F. M. Yahaya, K. Muthusamy, B. A. Tayeh, and A. M. Humada (2020). Effect of High-volume Ultrafine Palm Oil Fuel Ash on the Engineering and Transport Properties of Concrete. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 12; e00318
Hamada, H. M., G. A. Jokhio, F. M. Yahaya, A. M. Humada, and Y. Gul (2018). The Present State of the Use of Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) in Concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 175; 26–40
Hamada, H. M., F. M. Yahaya, K. Muthusamy, G. A. Jokhio, and A. M. Humada (2019). Fresh and Hardened Properties of Palm Oil Clinker Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Incorporating Nano palm Oil Fuel Ash. Construction and Building Materials, 214; 344–354
Hossain, M., M. Karim, M. Hasan, M. Hossain, and M. Zain (2016). Durability of Mortar and Concrete Made up of Pozzolans As a Partial Replacement of Cement: A Review. Construction and building materials, 116; 128–140
Huseien, G. F., Z. J. Hussein, Z. Kubba, B. Mikhail Nikolaevich, and J. Mirza (2023a). Improved Bond Strength Performance of Geopolymer Mortars: Role of High Volume Ground Blast Furnace Slag, Fly Ash, and Palm Oil Fuel Ash Incorporation. Minerals, 13(8); 1096
Huseien, G. F., M. Khamehchi, Z. Kubba, O. Benjeddou, and M. J. Mahmoodi (2023b). Freeze-thaw Cycle and Abrasion Resistance of Alkali-activated FA and PPFA-based Mortars: Role of High Volume Gbfs Incorporation. Heliyon, 9(7); e17672
Huseien, G. F., Z. Kubba, and S. K. Ghoshal (2023c). Engineering Attributes of Ternary Geopolymer Mortars Containing High Volumes of Palm Oil Fuel Ash: Impact of Elevated Temperature Exposure. Fire, 6(9); 340
Jose, S. K., S. Anagha, B. Meera, T. Antony, and R. Reenu (2023). Foamed Concrete using Red Gypsum and Palm Oil Fuel Ash: A Sustainable Building Material. E3S Web of Conferences, 405; 03023
Khankhaje, E., M. Rafieizonooz, M. R. Salim, R. Khan, J. Mirza, H. C. Siong, et al. (2018). Sustainable Clean Pervious Concrete Pavement Production Incorporating Palm Oil Fuel Ash As Cement Replacement. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172; 1476–1485
Lin, Y., U. J. Alengaram, and Z. Ibrahim (2023). Effect of Treated and Untreated Rice Husk Ash, Palm Oil Fuel Ash, and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash on the Mechanical, Durability, and Microstructure Characteristics of Blended Concrete–a Comprehensive Review. Journal of Building Engineering, 78; 107500
Liu, M. Y. J., U. J. Alengaram, M. Santhanam, M. Z. Jumaat, and K. H. Mo (2016). Microstructural Investigations of Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Fly Ash Based Binders in Lightweight Aggregate Foamed Geopolymer Concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 120; 112–122
Muthusamy, K., A. M. A. Budiea, N. W. Azhar, M. S. Jaafar, S. M. S. Mohsin, N. F. Arifin, and F. M. Yahaya (2021a). Durability Properties of Oil Palm Shell Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Containing Fly Ash As Partial Cement Replacement. Materials Today: Proceedings, 41; 56–60
Muthusamy, K., A. M. A. Budiea, S. M. S. Mohsin, N. S. M. Zam, and N. E. A. Nadzri (2021b). Properties of Fly Ash Cement Brick Containing Palm Oil Clinker As Fine Aggregate Replacement. Materials Today: Proceedings, 46; 1652–1656
Muthusamy, K., M. S. Jaafar, N. W. Azhar, N. Zamri, N. Samsuddin, A. M. A. Budiea, and M. F. M. Jaafar (2020). Properties of Oil Palm Shell Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Containing Fly Ash As Partial Cement Replacement. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, volume 849. IOP Publishing, page 012048
Muthusamy, K., J. Mirza, N. A. Zamri, M. W. Hussin, A. P. A. Majeed, A. Kusbiantoro, and A. M. A. Budiea (2019). Properties of High Strength Palm Oil Clinker Lightweight Concrete Containing Palm Oil Fuel Ash in Tropical Climate. Construction and Building Materials, 199; 163–177
Naganathan, S., A. Y. O. Mohamed, and K. N. Mustapha (2015). Performance of Bricks Made Using Fly Ash and Bottom Ash. Construction and Building Materials, 96; 576–580
Nandiyanto, A. B. D., R. Oktiani, and R. Ragadhita (2019). How to Read and Interpret FTIR Spectroscope of Organic Material. Indonesian Journal of Science and Technology, 4(1); 97–118
Nath, P. and P. K. Sarker (2014). Effect of GGBFS on Setting, Workability and Early Strength Properties of Fly Ash Geopolymer Concrete Cured in Ambient Condition. Construction and Building Materials, 66; 163–171
Nugraha, P. et al. (2007). Teknologi Beton; Dari Material, Pembuatan, Ke Beton Kinerja Tinggi. Yogyakarta: Andi (In Indonesia)
Rafieizonooz, M., J. Mirza, M. R. Salim, M. W. Hussin, and E. Khankhaje (2016). Investigation of Coal Bottom Ash and Fly Ash in Concrete As Replacement for Sand and Cement. Construction and Building Materials, 116; 15–24
Rajak, M. A. A., Z. A. Majid, and M. Ismail (2023). Hydration of Hardened Cement Paste Incorporates Nano-Palm Oil Fuel Ash at Later Age: The Microstructure Studies. matrix, 6; 7
Ranjbar, N., M. Mehrali, U. J. Alengaram, H. S. C. Metselaar, and M. Z. Jumaat (2014). Compressive Strength and Microstructural Analysis of Fly Ash/palm Oil Fuel Ash Based Geopolymer Mortar under Elevated Temperatures. Construction and Building Materials, 65; 114–121
Ryu, G. S., Y. B. Lee, K. T. Koh, and Y. S. Chung (2013). The Mechanical Properties of Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete with Alkaline Activators. Construction and Building Materials, 47; 409–418
Sabah, S. A., Z. Zainul, S. Hashim, and M. M. Johari (2020). The Influence of Palm Oil Fuel Ash on the Fresh Properties of Green Self-compacting Concrete. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, volume 849. IOP Publishing, page 012066
Satriawan, A. and A. Awaluddin (2021). The Utilization Silica from Oil Fly Ash as a Raw material for Paper Filler. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series, volume 2049. IOP Publishing, page 012062
Sherir, M. A., K. M. Hossain, and M. Lachemi (2014). Fracture Energy Characteristics of Engineered Cementitious Composites Incorporating Different Aggregates. In CSCE 2014 4th International Structural Specialty Conference
Siad, H., A. Alyousif, O. K. Keskin, S. B. Keskin, M. Lachemi, M. Sahmaran, and K. M. A. Hossain (2015). Influence of Limestone Powder on Mechanical, Physical and Self-healing Behavior of Engineered Cementitious Composites. Construction and Building Materials, 99; 1–10
Sumra, Y., S. Payam, A. C. Iftikhar, M. Rizwan, A. K. Tanveer, A. Belal, and G. Mustabshirha (2023). Chemical and Thermal Characterization of Cement Mortar Containing Ground Palm Oil Fuel Ash as a Partial Cement Replacement. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology-Mater. Sci. Ed., 38(3); 575–581
Tasnim, S., Y. Du, M. E. Rahman, R. B. Ahmadi, and S. I. Doh (2020). Effect of Using Palm Oil Fuel Ash on the Durability of Cement Paste in Ammonium Nitrate Solution. Construction and Building Materials, 257; 119597
Thomas, B. S., S. Kumar, and H. S. Arel (2017). Sustainable Concrete Containing Palm Oil Fuel Ash As a Supplementary Cementitious Material–a Review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 80; 550–561
Ting, T. Z. H., M. E. Rahman, and H. H. Lau (2020). Sustainable Lightweight Self-compacting Concrete Using Oil Palm Shell and Fly Ash. Construction and Building Materials, 264; 120590
Tosun-Felekoğlu, K., E. Gödek, M. Keskinateş, and B. Felekoğlu (2017). Utilization and Selection of Proper Fly Ash in Cost Effective Green Htpp-ecc Design. Journal of Cleaner Production, 149; 557–568
Wang, S. and V. C. Li (2007). Engineered Cementitious Composites with High-volume Fly Ash. ACI Materials Journal, 104(3); 233
Wi, K., H.-S. Lee, S. Lim, H. Song, M. W. Hussin, and M. A. Ismail (2018). Use of an Agricultural By product, Nano Sized Palm Oil Fuel Ash As a Supplementary Cementitious Material. Construction and Building Materials, 183; 139–149
Zaimi, S. A., M. N. Muhd Sidek, N. H. Hashim, H. Mohd Saman, R. Putra Jaya, and N. A. Marzuki (2023). Potential of Palm Oil Fuel Ash as a Partial Replacement of Fine Aggregates for Improved Fresh and Hardened Mortar Performance. Advances in Civil Engineering, 2023
Zawawi, M. N. A. A., K. Muthusamy, A. P. A. Majeed, R. M. Musa, and A. M. A. Budiea (2020). Mechanical Properties of Oil Palm Waste Lightweight Aggregate Concrete with Fly Ash As Fine Aggregate Replacement. Journal of Building Engineering, 27; 100924
Authors
Siregar, S. M., Humaidi, S., Bukit, N., & Frida, E. (2024). Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Fly Ash for a Partial Replacement of Cement in High-Quality, Environmentally Friendly Mortar as a Solution to Industrial Waste. Science and Technology Indonesia, 9(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2024.9.1.59-68
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