Utilization of Diatom Frustule Waste from Navicula sp. TAD as Photoelectrode Material for Enhancing the Efficiency of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC)
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Keywords:
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Diatom, Frustule Waste , Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC), Navicula sp. TAD, Photoelectrode Material, Solar Cell Efficiency
Abstract
Navicula sp. TAD is a microalga with silica-based cell walls, offering potential to improve photon interaction in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). This study combined Navicula sp. TAD frustules with TiO2 to fabricate DSSC working electrodes. The objectives were to isolate and characterize the frustules, optimize the TiO2–frustule ratio, and evaluate photoelectric performance. The workflow consisted of cultivating Navicula sp., isolating pigments and frustules, fabricating solar cells with varied electrode compositions, and performing photoelectric testing under a solar simulator. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis confirmed that the frustules possess nanoporous surfaces and exhibit Si–O–Si and Si–OH functional groups. Electrodes incorporating TiO2–frustule blends showed compact pore networks, along with additional functional groups. Performance screening across compositions identified an optimal TiO2–frustule ratio of 40:60, which delivered an efficiency of 10.51%, a short-circuit current density of 0.673 A, an open-circuit voltage of 301.8 mV, and a fill factor of 0.32. These findings indicate that frustule-enabled light management and surface chemistry can jointly enhance dye loading and charge collection in DSSC photoanodes relative to TiO2 alone.
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Zgłobicka, I., J. Gluch, Z. Liao, S.Werner, P. Guttmann, Q. Li, P. Bazarnik, T. Plocinski, A.Witkowski, and K. J. Kurzydlowski (2021). Insight into Diatom Frustule Structures Using Various Imaging Techniques. Scientific Reports, 11; 1–10
Zuluaga-Astudillo, D., J. C. Ruge, and B. Caicedo-Hormaza (2025). Micromechanical Characterization of Diatom Frustules of Multiple Origin. Applied Sciences, 15(2); 5–24
Bandara, T. M.W. J., M. Furlani, I. Albinsson, A.Wulff, and B. E. Mellander (2020). Diatom Frustules Enhancing the Efficiency of Gel Polymer Electrolyte Based Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells with Multilayer Photoelectrodes. Nanoscale Advances, 2(1); 199–209
Bhardwaj, R., A. Yadav, P. Swapnil, and M. Meena (2025). Characterization of Microalgal Beta-Carotene and Astaxanthin: Exploring Their Health-Promoting Properties Under the Effect of Salinity and Light Intensity. Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts, 18(18); 1–21
Chanda, A. (2018). Structural and Magnetic Study of Undoped and Cobalt Doped TiO2 Nanoparticles. RSC Advances, 8; 10939–10947
Chen, X., C.Wang, E. Baker, and C. Sun (2015). Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Light Trapping Effect of Nanostructured Diatom Frustules. Scientific Reports, 5; 11977
Chiba, Y., A. Islam, Y.Watanabe, R. Komiya, N. Koide, and L. Han (2006). Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells with Conversion Efficiency of 11.1Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, 45(24–28); L638–L640
De Tommasi, E., J. Gielis, and A. Rogato (2017). Diatom Frustule Morphogenesis and Function: AMultidisciplinary Survey. Marine Genomics, 35; 1–18
Dragonetti, C. and A. Colombo (2021). Recent Advances in Solar Cells. Molecules, 26; 2461
Goessling, J.W., Y. Su, P. Cartaxana, C. Maibohm, L. F. Rickelt, E. C. L. Trampe, S. L.Walby, D.Wangpraseurt, X.Wu, M. Ellegaard, and M. Kühl (2018). Structure-Based Optics of Centric Diatom Frustules: Modulation of the In Vivo Light Field for Efficient Diatom Photosynthesis. New Phytologist, 219(1); 122–134
Grätzel, M. (2003). Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews, 4(2); 145–153
Hara, K. and H. Arakawa (2003). Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. In Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. pages 642–674
Hu, X., I. Khan, Q. Jiao, A. Zada, and T. Jia (2021). Chlorophyllase, a Common Plant Hydrolase Enzyme with a Long History, Is Still a Puzzle. Genes, 12; 1871
Huang, D. R., Y. J. Jiang, R. L. Liou, C. H. Chen, Y. A. Chen, and C. H. Tsai (2015). Enhancing the Efficiency of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells by Adding Diatom Frustules into TiO2Working Electrodes. Applied Surface Science, 347; 64–72
Kurniawan, M. R. H., S. A. Cahyani, N. Kusumawati, P. Setiarso, and S. Muslim (2025). Optimization of Radiation and Electric Current Storage in a Dye-Sensitized Solar-Cell System Based FTO/TiO2/Acy/PVDF/C/FTOModules for Electrical Equipment Applications. Science and Technology Indonesia, 10(2); 574–587
Langer, J., J. Quist, and K. Blok (2021). Review of Renewable Energy Potentials in Indonesia and Their Contribution to a 100Energies, 14(21); 7033
Latunussa, C. E. L., F. Ardente, G. Andrea, and L. Mancini (2016). Life Cycle Assessment of an Innovative Recycling Process for Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Panels. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells; 1–11
Müller, A., L. Friedrich, C. Reichel, S. Herceg, M. Mittag, and D. H. Neuhaus (2021). A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Silicon PVModules: Impact of Module Design, Manufacturing Location and Inventory. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 230; 111277
Rogato, A. and E. De Tommasi (2020). Physical, Chemical, and Genetic Techniques for Diatom Frustule Modification: Applications in Nanotechnology. Applied Sciences, 10(23); 1–23
Sambrano, J. R., L. A. Vasconcellos, J. B. L. Martins, M. R. C. Santos, E. Longo, and A. Beltran (2003). A Theoretical Analysis on Electronic Structure of the (110) Surface of TiO2-SnO2 Mixed Oxide. Journal of Molecular Structure: THEOCHEM, 629(1–3); 307–314
Shady, A. M. A., A. A. Zalat, E. A. Al-Ashkar, and M. Mohamed (2019). Nanoporous Silica of Some Egyptian Diatom Frustules as a Promising Natural Material. Nanoscience & Nanotechnology-Asia, 9; 1–16
Soleimani, M., L. C. A. Van Breemen, S. P. Maddala, R. R. M. Joosten, H.Wu, I. Schreur-Piet, R. A. T. M. Van Benthem, and H. Friedrich (2021). In Situ Manipulation and Micromechanical Characterization of Diatom Frustule Constituents Using Focused Ion Beam Scanning Electron Microscopy. Small Methods, 5; 2100638
Telussa, I., N. Hattu, and A. Sahalessy (2021). Morphological Observation, Identification and Isolation of Tropical Marine Microalgae from Ambon Bay, Maluku. Indonesian Journal of Chemical Research, 9(2); 129–136
Telussa, I., Rahayu, and E. R. M. A. P. Lilipaly (2022). Isolation and Characterization of Biosilica as Bionanomaterial from theWaste of Frustules Diatom Navicula sp. TAD. Rasayan Journal of Chemistry; 198–203
Telussa, I., Rusnadi, and Z. Nurachman (2019). Dynamics of Beta-Carotene and Fucoxanthin of Tropical Marine Navicula sp. as a Response to Light Stress Conditions. Algal Research, 41; 101530
Tobaldi, D. M., A. Tucci, A. S. Škapin, and L. Esposito (2010). Effects of SiO2 Addition on TiO2 Crystal Structure and Photocatalytic Activity. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 30(12); 2481–2490
Tomioka, N. and Y. Abe (2024). Diffusion of Individual Nanoparticles in Cylindrical Diatom Frustule. Nanoscale Advances; 1–6
Toster, J., K. S. Iyer,W. Xiang, F. Rosei, L. Spiccia, and C. L. Raston (2013). Diatom Frustules as Light Traps Enhance DSSC Efficiency. Nanoscale, 5(3); 873–876
Ugya, A. Y. and K. Meguellati (2022). Microalgae Biomass Modelling and Optimisation for Sustainable Biotechnology: A Concise Review. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 23(9); 309–318
Wahyudi, H., U. Ciptawaty, A. Ratih, and A. D. Pratama (2023). Comparison of Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy in the Long and Short Term of Indonesia Economy. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 13(5); 194–201
Wang, J. K. and M. Seibert (2017). Prospects for Commercial Production of Diatoms. Biotechnology for Biofuels, 10(1); 1–14
Zgłobicka, I., J. Gluch, Z. Liao, S.Werner, P. Guttmann, Q. Li, P. Bazarnik, T. Plocinski, A.Witkowski, and K. J. Kurzydlowski (2021). Insight into Diatom Frustule Structures Using Various Imaging Techniques. Scientific Reports, 11; 1–10
Zuluaga-Astudillo, D., J. C. Ruge, and B. Caicedo-Hormaza (2025). Micromechanical Characterization of Diatom Frustules of Multiple Origin. Applied Sciences, 15(2); 5–24
Authors
Telussa, I., Tehubijuluw, H. ., Lilipaly, E. R. M. A. P. ., Malle, D. ., & Amarduan, R. M. . (2026). Utilization of Diatom Frustule Waste from Navicula sp. TAD as Photoelectrode Material for Enhancing the Efficiency of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC). Science and Technology Indonesia, 11(2), 632–642. https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2026.11.2.632-642
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