Synthesis and Characterization of Composite Materials Based on Bacterial Cellulose and Fly Ash
Article Sidebar
Keywords:
-
Bacterial Cellulose, Fly Ash, Composite Materials, Methanol Permeability, Fibers
Abstract
The synthesis of composite materials based on bacterial cellulose with fly ash (FA) has been carried out based on the mass ratio between bacterial cellulose and fly ash, namely 0.005:4.995; 0.01:4.99; 0.015:4.985, and 0.02:4.98. Bacterial cellulose was obtained from the fermentation of coconut water and fly ash was treated after being obtained from the Steam Power Plant (PLTU) of Bengkulu Electric Power Plant Pulau Baai. The characterization of the composite material that had been formed was analyzed using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman Spectroscopy, and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), the results can be validated that the bacterial cellulose composite has been formed with fly ash. The FTIR results also support the XRD results that have been obtained, Raman spectroscopy shows a Raman shift at 1352 cm-1 as an indication of the bending of C-C-H, CH2, and C-OH the highest conductivity was obtained in the variation of 0.02:4.98 which is 2.45×10-3 S/cm. The methanol permeability test obtained was higher along with the addition of fly ash to bacterial cellulose occurred in the composite material variation of 0.02:4.98, which is 3.66×10-9 mol/cm.s. The highest water absorption occurred in the composite material variation of 0.01:4.98 reaching 718% and the results of SEM micrographs with a magnification of 10000× produced a morphology in the form of fibers with fly ash components interwoven by bacterial cellulose fibers.
References
Agarwal, U. P. (2019). Analysis of Cellulose and Lignocellulose Materials by Raman Spectroscopy: A Review of the Current Status. Molecules, 24(9), 1659–1675.
Aofei, G., Z. Sun, N. Sathitsuksanoh, and H. Feng (2020). A Review on the Application of Nanocellulose in Cementitious Materials. Nanomaterials, 10(12), 2476.
Aritonang, H. F., V. S. Kamu, Ciptati, D. Onggo, and C. L. Radiman (2017). Performance of Platinum Nanoparticles/ Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes/ Bacterial Cellulose Composite as Anode Catalyst for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis, 12(2), 287–292.
Aritonang, H. F., D. Onggo, Ciptati, and C. L. Radiman (2015). Insertion of Platinum Particles in Bacterial Cellulose Membranes from PtCl₄ and H₂PtCl₆ Precursors. Macromolecular Symposia, 353(1), 55–61.
Bokobza, L., M. Couzi, and J. L. Bruneel (2017). Raman Spectroscopy of Polymer-Carbon Nanomaterial Composites. Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 90(1), 37–59.
Dheeresh, K. N., P. P. Abhilash, R. Singh, R. Kumar, and V. Kumar (2022). Fly Ash for Sustainable Construction: A Review of Fly Ash Concrete and Its Beneficial Use Case Studies. Cleaner Materials, 6(3), 100143.
Fontana, J. D., A. M. De Souza, C. K. Fontana, I. L. Torriani, J. C. Moreschi, B. J. Gallotti, S. J. De Souza, G. P. Narcisco, J. A. Bichara, and L. F. X. Farah (1990). Acetobacter Cellulose Pellicle as a Temporary Skin Substitute. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 24, 253–264.
Gopinathan, P., M. S. Santosh, V. G. Dileepkumar, T. Subramani, R. Reddy, R. E. Masto, and S. Maity (2022). Geochemical, Mineralogical and Toxicological Characteristics of Coal Fly Ash and Its Environmental Impacts. Chemosphere, 307(1), 135710.
Gunday, S. T., H. Tombuloglu, I. Anil, O. Alagha, and A. Bozkurt (2021). Natural Pozzolan Super-Absorbent Polymer: Synthesis, Characterization, and Its Application on Plant Growing Under Drought Condition. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering, 12, 751–760.
Gupta, V., C. Raja, and J. Anandkumar (2020). Phenol Removal by Novel Choline Chloride Blended Cellulose Acetate-Fly Ash Composite Membrane. Periodica Polytechnica Chemical Engineering, 64(1), 116–123.
Henrik, B., G. Helenius, A. Bodin, U. Nannmark, B. R. Johansson, B. Risberg, and P. Gatenholm (2006). Mechanical Properties of Bacterial Cellulose and Interactions with Smooth Muscle Cells. Biomaterials, 27(9), 2141–2149.
Iguchi, M., S. Yamanaka, and A. Budhiono (2000). Bacterial Cellulose-A Masterpiece of Nature’s Arts. Journal of Materials Science, 35(2), 261–270.
Joel, S. (2020). Compressive Strength of Concrete Using Fly Ash and Rice Husk Ash: A Review. Civil Engineering Journal, 6(7), 1400–1410.
Kim, S. H., C. M. Lee, and K. Kafle (2013). Characterization of Crystalline Cellulose in Biomass: Basic Principles, Applications, and Limitations of XRD, NMR, IR, Raman, and SFG. Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, 30, 2127–2141.
Kumar, P. N., A. Rajadurai, and T. Muthuramalingam (2018). Multi-Response Optimization on Mechanical Properties of Silica Fly Ash Filled Polyester Composites Using Taguchi-Grey Relational Analysis. Silicon, 10(4), 1723–1729.
Marino, M., L. L. D. Silva, N. Duran, and L. Tasic (2015). Enhanced Materials from Nature: Nanocellulose from Citrus Waste. Molecules, 20(4), 5908–5923.
Maulana, F., M. P. Aulia, and S. Aprilia (2023). Fly Ash/ Coconut Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites: Effect on Physical Properties (Density, Water Absorption, and Thickness Swelling). Materials Today: Proceedings, 87(2), 180–186.
Moon, H. K., J. E. Kim, J. Go, E. K. Koh, S. H. Song, H. J. Son, H. S. Kim, Y. H. Yun, Y. J. Jung, and D. Y. Hwang (2015). Bacterial Cellulose Membrane Produced by Acetobacter sp. A10 for Burn Wound Dressing Applications. Carbohydrate Polymers, 122(20), 387–398.
Moon, S. H., J. M. Park, H. Y. Chun, and S. J. Kim (2006). Comparisons of Physical Properties of Bacterial Celluloses Produced in Different Culture Conditions Using Saccharified Food Wastes. Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering, 11(1); 26–31.
Mubarak, A. (2023). Qualitative Analyses of Thin Film-Based Materials Validating New Structures of Atoms. Materials Today Communications, 36; 106552.
Muhammad, M. A., M. C. I. M. Amin, and C. Martin (2014). A Review of Bacterial Cellulose-Based Drug Delivery Systems: Their Biochemistry, Current Approaches and Future Prospects. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 66(8); 1047–1061.
Mutiara, T., H. Sulistyo, M. Fahrurrozi, and M. Hidayat (2022). Facile Route of Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Templated Bacterial Cellulose, Characterization, and Its Antibacterial Application. Green Processing and Synthesis, 11(2); 361–372.
Nishi, Y., M. Uryu, S. Yamanaka, K. Watanabe, N. Kitamura, M. Iguchi, and S. Mitsuhashi (1990). The Structure and Mechanical Properties of Sheets Prepared from Bacterial Cellulose. Journal of Materials Science, 25(6); 2997–3001.
Norhaiza, G., K. Muthusamy, and S. W. Ahmad (2019). Utilization of Fly Ash in Construction. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 601; 012023.
Prayoga, M. B. R. and R. A. Afla (2023). Utilization of Fly Ash and Bottom Ash Waste: A Study at PLTU Tanjung Jati B, Jepara, Indonesia. Asian Journal of Toxicology, Environmental, and Occupational Health, 1(1); 9–19.
Radiman, C. L. and A. Rifathin (2013). Preparation of Phosphorylated Nata-de-Coco for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Applications. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 130(1); 399–405.
Radiman, C. L. and G. Yuliani (2008). Coconut Water as a Potential Resource for Cellulose Acetate Membrane Preparation. Polymer International, 57(3); 502–508.
Rahmawati, S., C. L. Radiman, and M. A. Martoprawiro (2018). Density Functional Theory (DFT) and Natural Bond Orbital (NBO) Analysis of Intermolecular Hydrogen Bond Interaction in Phosphorylated Nata de Coco-Water. Indonesian Journal of Chemistry, 18(1); 173–178.
Refaat, A., H. Elhaes, and M. A. Ibrahim (2023). Effect of Alkali Metals on Physical and Spectroscopic Properties of Cellulose. Scientific Reports, 13; 21649.
Rusli, R., K. Shanmuganathan, S. J. Rowan, C. Weder, and S. J. Eichhorn (2010). Stress-Transfer in Anisotropic and Environmentally Adaptive Cellulose Whisker Nanocomposites. Biomacromolecules, 11(3); 762–768.
Satapathy, S., A. Nag, and G. Nando (2012). Effect of Electron Beam Irradiation on the Mechanical, Thermal, and Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Fly Ash and Nanostructured Fly Ash Waste Polyethylene Hybrid Composites. Polymer Composites, 33(1); 109–119.
Segneanu, A. E., C. N. Marin, G. Vlase, C. Cepan, M. Mihailescu, C. Muntean, and I. Grozescu (2022). Highly Efficient Engineered Waste Eggshell-Fly Ash for Cadmium Removal from Aqueous Solution. Scientific Reports, 12(1); 9676–96108.
Seham, S. A. and N. H. Marei (2021). Fly Ash Properties, Characterization, and Applications: A Review. Journal of King Saud University-Science, 33(6); 101536.
Sen, U., S. U. Celik, A. Ata, and A. Bozkurt (2008). Anhydrous Proton Conducting Membranes for PEM Fuel Cells Based on Nafion/Azole Composites. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 33(11); 2808–2815.
Shao, W., H. Liu, S. Wang, J. Wu, M. Huang, H. Min, and X. Liu (2016). Controlled Release and Antibacterial Activity of Tetracycline Hydrochloride-Loaded Bacterial Cellulose Composite Membranes. Carbohydrate Polymers, 145; 114–120.
Shibazaki, H., S. Kuga, F. Onabe, and M. Usuda (1993). Bacterial Cellulose Membrane as Separation Medium. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 50(6); 965–969.
Siregar, S. M., S. Humaidi, N. Bukit, and E. Frida (2024). Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Fly Ash for a Partial Replacement of Cement in High-Quality, Environmentally Friendly Mortar as a Solution to Industrial Waste. Science and Technology Indonesia, 9(1); 59–68.
Smitha, B., S. Sridhar, and A. A. Khan (2005). Chitosan-Sodium Alginate Polyion Complexes as Fuel Cell Membranes. European Polymer Journal, 41(8); 1859–1866.
Sulaeva, I., U. Henniges, T. Rosenau, and A. Potthast (2015). Bacterial Cellulose as a Material for Wound Treatment: Properties and Modifications. Biotechnology Advances, 33(8); 1547–1571.
Tahara, N., M. Tabuchi, K. Watanabe, H. Yano, Y. Morinaga, and F. Yoshinaga (1997). Degree of Polymerization of Cellulose From Acetobacter xylinum BPR2001 Decreased by Cellulase Produced by the Strain. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry, 61(11); 1862–1865.
Thomas, S. (2008). A Review of the Physical, Biological and Clinical Properties of a Bacterial Cellulose Wound Dressing. Journal of Wound Care, 17(8); 349–352.
Visa, M. (2016). Synthesis and Characterization of New Zeolite Materials Obtained From Fly Ash for Heavy Metals Removal in Advanced Wastewater Treatment. Powder Technology, 294; 338–347.
Aofei, G., Z. Sun, N. Sathitsuksanoh, and H. Feng (2020). A Review on the Application of Nanocellulose in Cementitious Materials. Nanomaterials, 10(12), 2476.
Aritonang, H. F., V. S. Kamu, Ciptati, D. Onggo, and C. L. Radiman (2017). Performance of Platinum Nanoparticles/ Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes/ Bacterial Cellulose Composite as Anode Catalyst for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis, 12(2), 287–292.
Aritonang, H. F., D. Onggo, Ciptati, and C. L. Radiman (2015). Insertion of Platinum Particles in Bacterial Cellulose Membranes from PtCl₄ and H₂PtCl₆ Precursors. Macromolecular Symposia, 353(1), 55–61.
Bokobza, L., M. Couzi, and J. L. Bruneel (2017). Raman Spectroscopy of Polymer-Carbon Nanomaterial Composites. Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 90(1), 37–59.
Dheeresh, K. N., P. P. Abhilash, R. Singh, R. Kumar, and V. Kumar (2022). Fly Ash for Sustainable Construction: A Review of Fly Ash Concrete and Its Beneficial Use Case Studies. Cleaner Materials, 6(3), 100143.
Fontana, J. D., A. M. De Souza, C. K. Fontana, I. L. Torriani, J. C. Moreschi, B. J. Gallotti, S. J. De Souza, G. P. Narcisco, J. A. Bichara, and L. F. X. Farah (1990). Acetobacter Cellulose Pellicle as a Temporary Skin Substitute. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 24, 253–264.
Gopinathan, P., M. S. Santosh, V. G. Dileepkumar, T. Subramani, R. Reddy, R. E. Masto, and S. Maity (2022). Geochemical, Mineralogical and Toxicological Characteristics of Coal Fly Ash and Its Environmental Impacts. Chemosphere, 307(1), 135710.
Gunday, S. T., H. Tombuloglu, I. Anil, O. Alagha, and A. Bozkurt (2021). Natural Pozzolan Super-Absorbent Polymer: Synthesis, Characterization, and Its Application on Plant Growing Under Drought Condition. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering, 12, 751–760.
Gupta, V., C. Raja, and J. Anandkumar (2020). Phenol Removal by Novel Choline Chloride Blended Cellulose Acetate-Fly Ash Composite Membrane. Periodica Polytechnica Chemical Engineering, 64(1), 116–123.
Henrik, B., G. Helenius, A. Bodin, U. Nannmark, B. R. Johansson, B. Risberg, and P. Gatenholm (2006). Mechanical Properties of Bacterial Cellulose and Interactions with Smooth Muscle Cells. Biomaterials, 27(9), 2141–2149.
Iguchi, M., S. Yamanaka, and A. Budhiono (2000). Bacterial Cellulose-A Masterpiece of Nature’s Arts. Journal of Materials Science, 35(2), 261–270.
Joel, S. (2020). Compressive Strength of Concrete Using Fly Ash and Rice Husk Ash: A Review. Civil Engineering Journal, 6(7), 1400–1410.
Kim, S. H., C. M. Lee, and K. Kafle (2013). Characterization of Crystalline Cellulose in Biomass: Basic Principles, Applications, and Limitations of XRD, NMR, IR, Raman, and SFG. Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, 30, 2127–2141.
Kumar, P. N., A. Rajadurai, and T. Muthuramalingam (2018). Multi-Response Optimization on Mechanical Properties of Silica Fly Ash Filled Polyester Composites Using Taguchi-Grey Relational Analysis. Silicon, 10(4), 1723–1729.
Marino, M., L. L. D. Silva, N. Duran, and L. Tasic (2015). Enhanced Materials from Nature: Nanocellulose from Citrus Waste. Molecules, 20(4), 5908–5923.
Maulana, F., M. P. Aulia, and S. Aprilia (2023). Fly Ash/ Coconut Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites: Effect on Physical Properties (Density, Water Absorption, and Thickness Swelling). Materials Today: Proceedings, 87(2), 180–186.
Moon, H. K., J. E. Kim, J. Go, E. K. Koh, S. H. Song, H. J. Son, H. S. Kim, Y. H. Yun, Y. J. Jung, and D. Y. Hwang (2015). Bacterial Cellulose Membrane Produced by Acetobacter sp. A10 for Burn Wound Dressing Applications. Carbohydrate Polymers, 122(20), 387–398.
Moon, S. H., J. M. Park, H. Y. Chun, and S. J. Kim (2006). Comparisons of Physical Properties of Bacterial Celluloses Produced in Different Culture Conditions Using Saccharified Food Wastes. Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering, 11(1); 26–31.
Mubarak, A. (2023). Qualitative Analyses of Thin Film-Based Materials Validating New Structures of Atoms. Materials Today Communications, 36; 106552.
Muhammad, M. A., M. C. I. M. Amin, and C. Martin (2014). A Review of Bacterial Cellulose-Based Drug Delivery Systems: Their Biochemistry, Current Approaches and Future Prospects. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 66(8); 1047–1061.
Mutiara, T., H. Sulistyo, M. Fahrurrozi, and M. Hidayat (2022). Facile Route of Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Templated Bacterial Cellulose, Characterization, and Its Antibacterial Application. Green Processing and Synthesis, 11(2); 361–372.
Nishi, Y., M. Uryu, S. Yamanaka, K. Watanabe, N. Kitamura, M. Iguchi, and S. Mitsuhashi (1990). The Structure and Mechanical Properties of Sheets Prepared from Bacterial Cellulose. Journal of Materials Science, 25(6); 2997–3001.
Norhaiza, G., K. Muthusamy, and S. W. Ahmad (2019). Utilization of Fly Ash in Construction. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 601; 012023.
Prayoga, M. B. R. and R. A. Afla (2023). Utilization of Fly Ash and Bottom Ash Waste: A Study at PLTU Tanjung Jati B, Jepara, Indonesia. Asian Journal of Toxicology, Environmental, and Occupational Health, 1(1); 9–19.
Radiman, C. L. and A. Rifathin (2013). Preparation of Phosphorylated Nata-de-Coco for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Applications. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 130(1); 399–405.
Radiman, C. L. and G. Yuliani (2008). Coconut Water as a Potential Resource for Cellulose Acetate Membrane Preparation. Polymer International, 57(3); 502–508.
Rahmawati, S., C. L. Radiman, and M. A. Martoprawiro (2018). Density Functional Theory (DFT) and Natural Bond Orbital (NBO) Analysis of Intermolecular Hydrogen Bond Interaction in Phosphorylated Nata de Coco-Water. Indonesian Journal of Chemistry, 18(1); 173–178.
Refaat, A., H. Elhaes, and M. A. Ibrahim (2023). Effect of Alkali Metals on Physical and Spectroscopic Properties of Cellulose. Scientific Reports, 13; 21649.
Rusli, R., K. Shanmuganathan, S. J. Rowan, C. Weder, and S. J. Eichhorn (2010). Stress-Transfer in Anisotropic and Environmentally Adaptive Cellulose Whisker Nanocomposites. Biomacromolecules, 11(3); 762–768.
Satapathy, S., A. Nag, and G. Nando (2012). Effect of Electron Beam Irradiation on the Mechanical, Thermal, and Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Fly Ash and Nanostructured Fly Ash Waste Polyethylene Hybrid Composites. Polymer Composites, 33(1); 109–119.
Segneanu, A. E., C. N. Marin, G. Vlase, C. Cepan, M. Mihailescu, C. Muntean, and I. Grozescu (2022). Highly Efficient Engineered Waste Eggshell-Fly Ash for Cadmium Removal from Aqueous Solution. Scientific Reports, 12(1); 9676–96108.
Seham, S. A. and N. H. Marei (2021). Fly Ash Properties, Characterization, and Applications: A Review. Journal of King Saud University-Science, 33(6); 101536.
Sen, U., S. U. Celik, A. Ata, and A. Bozkurt (2008). Anhydrous Proton Conducting Membranes for PEM Fuel Cells Based on Nafion/Azole Composites. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 33(11); 2808–2815.
Shao, W., H. Liu, S. Wang, J. Wu, M. Huang, H. Min, and X. Liu (2016). Controlled Release and Antibacterial Activity of Tetracycline Hydrochloride-Loaded Bacterial Cellulose Composite Membranes. Carbohydrate Polymers, 145; 114–120.
Shibazaki, H., S. Kuga, F. Onabe, and M. Usuda (1993). Bacterial Cellulose Membrane as Separation Medium. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 50(6); 965–969.
Siregar, S. M., S. Humaidi, N. Bukit, and E. Frida (2024). Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Fly Ash for a Partial Replacement of Cement in High-Quality, Environmentally Friendly Mortar as a Solution to Industrial Waste. Science and Technology Indonesia, 9(1); 59–68.
Smitha, B., S. Sridhar, and A. A. Khan (2005). Chitosan-Sodium Alginate Polyion Complexes as Fuel Cell Membranes. European Polymer Journal, 41(8); 1859–1866.
Sulaeva, I., U. Henniges, T. Rosenau, and A. Potthast (2015). Bacterial Cellulose as a Material for Wound Treatment: Properties and Modifications. Biotechnology Advances, 33(8); 1547–1571.
Tahara, N., M. Tabuchi, K. Watanabe, H. Yano, Y. Morinaga, and F. Yoshinaga (1997). Degree of Polymerization of Cellulose From Acetobacter xylinum BPR2001 Decreased by Cellulase Produced by the Strain. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry, 61(11); 1862–1865.
Thomas, S. (2008). A Review of the Physical, Biological and Clinical Properties of a Bacterial Cellulose Wound Dressing. Journal of Wound Care, 17(8); 349–352.
Visa, M. (2016). Synthesis and Characterization of New Zeolite Materials Obtained From Fly Ash for Heavy Metals Removal in Advanced Wastewater Treatment. Powder Technology, 294; 338–347.
Authors
Yuliah, M., Sutanto, T. D., Maryanti, E. ., Angasa, E., & Gustian, I. (2025). Synthesis and Characterization of Composite Materials Based on Bacterial Cellulose and Fly Ash. Science and Technology Indonesia, 10(2), 552–561. https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2025.10.2.552-561
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.